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DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 
BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1917,  No.  53 


THE  CONIFERS 
OF  THE  NORTHERN  ROCKIES 


By  J.  E.  KIRKWOOD 

PROFESSOR  OF  BOTANY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MONTANA 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1918 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION  FOR  1917. 

re. — With  the  exceptions  indicated,  the  documents  named  below  will  be  sent  free 
of  charge  upon  application  to  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  0.  Those 
marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  no  longer  available  for  free  distribution,  but  may  be 
had  of  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  p,  < '.. 
upon  payment  of  the  price  stated.  Remittances  should  be  made  in  coin,  currency,  or 
money  order.     Stamps  are  not  accepted. 

A  complete  list  of  available  publications  will  be  sent  upon  application. 

*No.    1.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational   publications,  January,  1917. 

5  cts. 
*No.    2.  Reorganization  of  English  in  secondary  schools.    A  report  of  the  Com- 
mission on  Secondary  Education.    James  F.  Hosic.    20 
*No.     3.  Tine-needle  basketry  in  schools.     William  C.  A.  Hammel.    5  cts. 
No.    4.  Secondary  agricultural  schools  in  Russia.    W.  S.  Jesien. 
*No.    5.  Report  of  an  inquiry  into  the  administration  and  support  of  the  Colo- 
rado school  system.    Katherine  M.  Cook  and  A.  C.  Monahan.    10  etc. 
No,    6.  Educative  and  economic  possibilities  of  school-directed  home  gardening 

in  Richmond,  Ind.     J.   L.   Randall. 
No.     7.    Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  February,  1017. 
No.    8.  Current  practice  in  city  school  administration.     W.  S.  Deffenbaugh. 
No.    9.  Department-store  education.     Helen  R.   Morton. 
No.  10.  Development  of  arithmetic  as  a  school  subject.     W.  S.  Monroe. 
*No.  11.  Higher  technical  education  in  foreign  countries.     A.  T.   Smith  and 

W.  S.  Jesien.     20  cts. 
No.  12.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  March,  1917. 
No.  1.3.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  April,  1917. 
No.  14.  A  graphic  survey  of  book  publication.  1890-1916.     F.  E.  Woodward. 
No.  15.  Studies  in  higher  education  in  Ireland  and  Wales.    Geo.  E.  MacLean. 
No.  10.  Studies  in  higher  education  in  England  and  Scotland.    Geo.  E.  Mac- 
Lean. 
No.  17.  Accredited  higher  institutions.     S.   P.  Capen. 

;No.  18.  History  of  public  school  education  in  Delaware.    S.  B.  Weeks.    20  cts. 
No.  19.  Report  of  a  survey  of  the  University  of  Nevada. 
No.  20.  Activities  of  school  children  in  out-of-school  hours.    C.  D.  Jarvis. 
No.  21.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications.  May,  1917. 
No.  22.  Money  value  of  education.     A.  C.  Ellis. 

*No,  2&  Three  short  courses  in  home  making.    Carrie  A.  Lyford.    15  cts. 
No.  24.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications— Index,  Feb.,  1916- 

Jan.,   1917. 
No.  25.  Military    training    of    youths    of    school    age    in    foreign    countries. 

W.  S.  Jesien. 
No.  26.  Garden  clubs  in  the  schools  of  Englewood,  N.  J.    Charles  O.  Smith. 
No.  27.  Training  of  teachers  of  mathematics  for  secondary  schools.    It.  C.  Arch- 
ibald. 
No.  28.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  Juue,  1917. 
No.  29.  Practice  teaching  for  secondary  school  teachers.    A.  R.  Mead. 
No.  30.  School  extension  statistics,  1915-16.    Clarence  A.  Perry. 
No.  31.  Rural-teacher  preparation  in  county  training  schools  and  high  schools. 

H.    W.    Foght. 
No.  32.  Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  the  natives  of  Alaska,  1915-16. 
No.  33.  A  comparison  of  the  salaries  of  rural  and  urban  superintendents  of 
schools.     A.  C.  Monahan  and  C.  H.  Dye. 

[Continued  on  page  3  of  cover.l 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1917,  No.  53 


THE  CONIFERS 
OF  THE  NORTHERN  ROCKIES 


By  J.  E.  KIRKWOOD 

PROFESSOR  OF  BOTANY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MONTANA 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1918 


ADDITIONAL  OOPTF.S 

OF  THIS  PUBLICATION  MAY  BE  PROCURED  FROM 

THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

AT 

15  CENTS  PER  COPY 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Letter  to  teachers G 

Note__ 6 

Chapter  L— The  forests 7 

Chapter  II.— The  species 19 

The  pines 21 

The  latches - . 29 

Spruce - 33 

Hemlocks 37 

Douglas  spruce 41 

Firs 45 

Arbor  vitse 49 

Junipers 53 

The  yew !___  57 

Chapter  III. — Directions  for  the  study  of  the  conifers 59 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 
Fig.  1.  Typical  stand  of  Yellow  Pine  in  western  Montana.     Scene  in  the 

Lolo  Valley  in  August.    A  southern  slope Frontispiece. 

2.  Mature  Western  Yellow  Pine,  with  undergrowth  mainly  of  Doug- 

las Spruce.     Bottom  lands  of  Lolo  Valley.  Montana 8 

3.  Near  view  of  the  trunk  of  the  Western  Yellow  Pine.    Tree  about  3 

feet  in  diameter  ;  young  Yellow  Pine  in  the  foreground 10 

4.  A  forest  of  Lodgcpole  Pine  in  the  Glacier  National  Park.    August-  12 

5.  White  Pine,  in  the  Flathead  Valley,  Montana.     July 14 

6.  White  Pine,  on  Priest  River,  northern  Idaho.    Tree  over  3  feet  in 

diameter  ;  young  Western  Hemlocks  in  the  foreground.    July 16 

7.  Whitebark  Pine,  in  Glacier  Park.     About  16  inches  in  diameter; 

altitude  about  6,500  feet 18 

8.  Limber  Pine.    On  an  exposed  ridge  east  of  the  Divide 20 

9.  Southern  Longleaf  Pine.     Illustrating  position  of  staminate  and 

ovulate  flowers.  Upper  left,  a  branch  with  staminate  cones; 
right,  a  branch  with  cones  of  three  ages;  at  the  top  are  two 
small  cones  at  time  of  pollination ;  midway  two  cones  a  year 
older;  below,  cones  approaching  maturity 22 

10.  Pine  cone,  open.     Below,  to  the  left,  lower  side  of  seed-bearing 

scale  showing  bract ;  to  the  right,  the  upper  side  showing  seeds ; 
above  to  right  and  left,  seeds  with  wings . 22 

11.  Western  Yellow  Pine.     A  branch  taken  in  July.    The  small  cones 

in  the  center  above  were  pollinated  in  May  preceding ;  the  larger 
cones  below  are  a  year  older,  and  would  have  ripened  in  late 
August.     About  one-third  natural  size 24 

3 


4  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 
Fig.  12.  Three  western  Montana  trees  near  Flathead  Lake.    Left,  Western 

Larch  ;  center,  Douglas  Spruce ;  right,  Lodgepole  Pine 2G 

13.  Western  Larch,  in  the  Flathead  Valley 28 

14.  Lyall's  Larch,  on  Mount  Lolo.    Trees  a  foot  or  less  in  diameter; 

about  8,000  feet  altitude.     August 30 

15.  Western  Larch.     A,  Branch  two  years  old;  B,  cone;  C,  a  young 

seed-bearing  scale  and  bract.    About  two-thirds  natural  size 31 

16.  Engleraann  Spruce,  in  Glacier  National  Park.    Scene  on  creek  bot- 

tom in  August 32 

17.  Englemann  Spruce,  in  the  upper  Bitter  Root  Valley,  Montana .".  I 

18.  Englemann  Spruce.    A,  Mature  cone;  B,  leaf;  C,  seed;  D,  portion 

of  twig;  about  natural  size 35 

19.  Western  Hemlock,  in  Glacier  National  Park 3G 

20.  Western   Hemlock.     A,   Twig  and   cone;   B,   seed-bearing  scale; 

slightly   enlarged 37 

21.  Mountain,  or  Black  Hemlock,  in  the  St.  Joe  Mountains  of  northern 

Idaho ;  on  the  extreme  left  an  Alpine  Fir 38 

22.  Mountain  Hemlock,  about  4  feet  in  diameter 40 

23.  Top  of  a  young  Douglas  Spruce 41 

24.  Grand  Fir,  typical  form * 42 

25.  ^Douglas  Spruce.     A,  Cone;  B,  leaf;  C,  bract  and  lower  side  of 

seed-bearing  scale;  D,  seed 43 

26.  Grand  Fir.     In  young  trees  the  bark  is  smooth,   but  it  grows 

rougher  with  age : 44 

27.  Grand  Fir.     A,  Twig  and  cone  in  natural  position;  B,  bract  and 

lower  side  of  seed-bearing  scale ;  C,  seed 45 

28.  Branch  of  Grand  Fir.     Condition  in  July 46 

29.  Alpine  Fir.     A,  Twig  and  cones  in  natural  position;  B,  bract,  at 

a,  and  lower  side  of  seed-bearing  scale;  C,  upper  side  of  seed- 
bearing  scale  with  seeds  in  position 47 

30.  Alpine  Fir,  in  Glacier  National  Park [ 48 

31.  Alpine  Fir.    The  smooth  bark  is  characteristic,  even  to  maturity—        50 

32.  Arbor  Vitae.     A,  Twig  and  cone;  scalelike  leaves;  B,  scale;  C, 

seed 51 

33.  Arbor  Vitae.     Scene  in  St.  Joe  Mountains  in  Idaho 52 

34.  Junipers.     Left,  Rocky  Mountain  Juniper,  with  immature  cones 

at  A  and  mature  ones  at  B.  Leaves  scalelike.  Right,  Dwarf 
Juniper,  twig  and  fruit;  D,  seed;  C,  fruit  (cone)  in  section, 
showing  two  seeds 53 

35.  Rocky  Mountain  Juniper,  on  Flathead  Lake 54 

36.  Dwarf  Juniper,  in  Glacier  National  Park__ 56 

37.  Western    Yew.      Branches    showing    fruits    in    various    stages    of 

development.     July___ 57 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  December  8,  1917. 
Sir:  Forest  trees  of  all  kinds  have  interest  for  all  people. 
Familiar  and  affectionate  knowledge  of  them  has  culture  value  of 
a  very  fine  kind.  For  the  people  of  some  sections  of  the  country  a 
scientific  study  of  the  trees  of. the  forest  has  much  practical  and 
commercial  value  as  well.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  forested 
region  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  I  therefore  recommend  that  the 
accompanying  manuscript  on  the  conifers  of  the  northern  Rockies, 
by  J.  E.  Kirkwood,  professor  of  botany  in  the  University  of  Mon- 
tana, be  published  as  a  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  dis- 
tribution among  the  teachers  in  the  schools  of  this  section  and  for 
sale  in  quantities  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents  for  the  use 
of  pupils  in  the  schools.  There  is  great  need  for  such  a  guide  for 
teachers  and  students  in  this  subject,  which,  with  the  help  of  such 
a  manual  as  this,  will  add  much  to  the  richness  of  the  school  work. 
It  is,  I  am  sure,  quite  within  the  province  of  this  bureau  to  assist 
in  this  way  the  people  of  the  country  as  a  whole,  or  any  part  of  it, 
to  improve  their  schools. 
Respectfully  submitted. 

P.  P.  Claxton, 

Commissioner. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

5 


LETTER  TO  TEACHERS. 


To  the  teachers  of  the  northern  Rockies: 

This  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  has  been  prepared  by 
one  who  knows  well  the  cone-bearing  trees  of  the  forests  of  the 
section  in  which  you  live,  and  the  needs  of  teachers  and  children 
who  would  study  these  trees.  The  text  of  this  bulletin  is  not  intended 
to  be  conned  and  recited  as  textbooks  too  often  are ;  it  is  intended  to 
be  used  as  a  suggestive  guide  in  the  out-of-door  study  of  the  trees 
themselves.  Should  pupils  in  the  schools  or  other  people  want 
copies  of  the  bulletin,  they  can  be  had  from  the  Superintendent  of 
Documents,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  15  cents. 

P.  P.  Claxton,  Commissioner. 


NOTE. 


The  purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  enable  persons  not  technically 
trained  in  botany  to  identify  the  coniferous  species  of  the  northern 
Kocky  Mountain  region  lying  within  the  United  States. 

Nothing  is  published  at  present,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  which 
presents  with  adequate  illustrations  and  in  nontechnical  language 
descriptions  of  the  trees  of  the  northern  Eocky  Mountain  region. 
That  some  such  publication  is  desirable  is  indicated  by  the  frequent 
inquiries  for  literature  on  this  subject  in  definite,  concise,  and  popular 
form.  This  need  is  felt  by  teachers  of  nature  study  in  the  public 
schools  scattered  throughout  the  northern  Rocky  Mountain  country, 
as  well  as  by  foresters,  farmers,  and  others  whose  work  or  pleasure 
takes  them  out  of  doors. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  to  Prof.  M.  J.  Elrod,  of  the  University 
of  Montana,  for  some  of  the  photographs  used  herein,  and  to  Mr. 
E.  E.  Hubert,  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  who  has  made  most 
of  the  drawings. 
6 


THE  CONIFERS  OF  THE  NORTHERN  ROOKIES. 


I.  THE  FORESTS. 

The  forest  appeals  strongly  to  the  human  mind  and  heart.  It  has 
a  deeper  hold  in  our  sentiment  than  all  other  forms  of  the  earth's 
vegetation.  In  song  and  story,  in  the  pages  of  romance,  in  the  litera- 
ture of  history,  of  religion,  and  of  science,  thoughts  of  the  forest 
have  quickened  the  facile  pens  of  many  writers.  The  genesis  of  man- 
kind was  in  the  forest,  and  in  the  forest  man  lived  and  fought  and 
grew ;  the  trees  he  venerated  and  in  the  groves  worshipped.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  forest  in  the  distribution  of  the  human  race  can  never 
be  reckoned.  From  the  first  venturing  upon  a  clumsy  raft  bound 
with  roots  and  vines  to  the  hulls  of  sturdy  oak  that  breasted  unknown 
seas,  the  history  of  settlement  and  conquest,  of  occupation  and  de- 
velopment, is  inseparable  from  the  story  of  the  forest  use. 

The  economic  value  of  the  forest  can  hardly  be  told,  for  when  we 
have  reckoned  in  terms  of  board  feet  and  dollars  and  cents,  there  re- 
mains the  less  obvious  but  not  the  less  real  influence,  far  reaching  into 
all  manner  of  conditions  and  impossible  of  calculation.  When  the* 
forest  goes,  there  go  with  it  the  forest  animal  life,  the  game  and  the 
fish,  the  fur-bearing  denizens  of  the  woods,  the  clear  streams,  the 
storage  of  waters  for  power  and  irrigation,  and  last  but  not  least  the 
influence  of  the  forest  itself  upon  the  soil  whereon  it  grows,  tend- 
ing ever  to  greater  richness  and  depth.  We  are  told  that  the  forests 
of  Montana  alone,  if  converted  into  lumber  at  the  present  prices, 
would  exceed  in  value  all  the  precious  metals  mined  in  the  State  since 
the  discovery  of  gold  over  50  years  ago.  But  this  vast  wealth  is  far 
surpassed  by  the  value  of  the  great  streams  to  manufacturing  and 
agriculture.  It  is  stated  upon  authority  that  more  power  can  be  de- 
veloped in  seven  miles  of  the  Missouri  at  Great  Falls  than  is  possible 
at  several  other  populous  cities  whose  wealth  and  influence  are 
largely  dependent  upon  their  power  sites. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  forest  is  one  of  the  distinct  vegetation  regions 
in  North  America  at  the  present  day.  It  is  conspicuously  coniferous, 
evergreen;  everywhere  the  somber  influence  of  the  fir  and  pine. 
But  while  the  conifers  or  softwoods  are  in  the  ascendency  as  to 
numbers,  as  species  the  hardwoods  far  exceed  them.  The  latter,  of 
course,  are  more  abundant  along  streams  and  in  other  situations 
where  soil  moisture  is  adequate  the  year  round. 

30408°— IS 2  7 


8 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


The  forests  of  the  northern  Rocky  Mountain  region  contain  5  or  6 
species  of  pine,  1  of  spruce,  2  of  larch,  2  hemlocks,  1  Douglas  spruce, 


Fig.  2.— Mature  Western  Yellow  Pine,  with  undergrowth  mainly  of  Douglas  Spruce.    Bot- 
.  torn  lands  of  Lolo  Valley,  Montana. 


2  firs,  1  arbor  vitae,  4  junipers,  and  1  yew.     Among  the  hardwoods 
are  5  cottonwoods  or  poplars,  30  willows  (of  which  only  7  or  8  are 


THE   FORESTS.  9 

found  in  tree  form),  3  species  of  alder,  4  of  birch,  3  of  cherry,  1  of 
plum,  4  of  hawthorns,  1  of  mountain  mahogany,  1  of  maple,  1  of 
mountain  ash,  1  of  dogwood  in  tree  form,  and  1  of  cascara.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  forests,  however,  are  more  noted  for  things  which 
they  lack  than  for  things  which  they  have.  Genera  which  are  con- 
spicuous east  or  west  are  either  wholly  lacking  or  at  least  very  spar- 
ingly represented  here.  There  is  no  native  oak,  hickory,  elm,  walnut, 
chestnut,  sycamore,  or  locust.  Of  the  many  and  vigorous  kinds  of 
birch,  alder,  maple,  plum,  cherry,  and  hawthorn  of  the  eastern  and 
western  forests,  there  are  only  the  few  and  inferior  species  mentioned. 

The  northern  Rockies  have  a  composite  flora,  not  only  with  refer- 
ence to  forests  but  also  in  the  lesser  vegetation.  That  is,  few  species 
of  trees  seem  really  to  be  indigenous,  and  these  are  mingled  with  the 
majority  which  have  migrated  in  from  other  sources  during  long 
periods  of  time.  To  get  a  better  idea  of  what  this  means,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  review  some  of  the  earlier  conditions. 

All  vegetation  of  the  earth  has  been  subject  to  periodic  change 
and  influence  in  relation  to  geology.  Long  ages  ago,1  in  the  early 
Cretaceous  period,  a  continuous  forest  of  conifers  and  cycads  cov- 
ered the  North  American  Continent.  In  the  late  Cretaceous  the 
land  became  divided  by  an  arm  of  the  sea  which  extended  north 
from  the  Gulf  to  the  Arctic  through  what  is  now  Texas  and  Mon- 
tana. During  this  period  was  the  beginning  of  the  marked  differ- 
entiation of  the  eastern  flora  from  that  of  the  West.  In  the  East 
are  the  elm,  hickory,  chestnut,  persimmon,  sassafras,  tulip,  Osage 
orange,  and  magnolia,  which  are  not  found  on  the  Pacific  coast;  in 
the  West  are  the  Sequoias,  cypress,  and  giant  cactus,  which  do  not 
occur  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Oaks  are  on  both  coasts,  but 
not  the  same  species  of  oaks;  the  same  to  a  large  extent  is  true  of 
maples,  alders,  pines,  firs,  and  many  others.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  Cretaceous  there  entered  many  hardwood  types  of  modern  form. 
The  eastern  slope  of  the  Rockies  was  more  humid  in  the  Cretaceous 
and  Tertiary  than  now,  as  one  may  judge  by  the  petrified  forests 
scattered  from  the  Yellowstone  Park  to  Arizona,  and  the  remains  of 
holly,  oaks,  elms,  chestnuts,  Sequoias,  and  other  trees  in  the  Floris- 
sant shales  of  Colorado. 

In  the  Tertiary  age  the  East  and  West  were  again  united  by  land. 
But  this  was  a  period  of  successive  uplifts  and  depressions.  Areas 
became  submerged  and  their  forests  destroyed.  Other  areas  were 
subjected  to  severe  changes  locally.  Erosion  and  other  disturbances 
must  have  greatly  modified  the  character,  proportion,  and  distri- 
bution of  the  species. 

With  the  advent  of  the  glacial  period  great  fields  of  ice  pushed 
southward,  carrying  destruction  to  the  forests  before  them.    Smaller 

1  Ilarshberger,  John  W.      Phytogoographic  Survey  of  North  America.     Leipzig,  1911. 


10 


THE    CONIFERS    OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


intermountain  glaciers  worked  destruction   in   forests  not  touched 
by  the  main  sheet.     Evidence  of  such  glaciers  is  abundant  through- 


Fig.  3.— Near  view  of  the  trunk  of  tbe  Western  Yellow  Pine.    Tree  about  3  feet  in  diameter; 
young  Yellow  Pine  in  the  foreground. 

out  the  whole  region.     It  is  probable  that  some  survived  in  advance 
of  the  ice,  but  modifications  of  climate  during  this  period  must  have 


THE    FORESTS.  11 

been  so  profound  as  to  affect  severely  all  the  forest  growth  within  a 
considerable  radius.  Arctic  vegetation  preceded  the  glaciers  and 
retired  with  them,  but  the  descendants  of  some  of  the  species  are 
still  found  upon  mountain  peaks. 

With  the  final  recession  of  the  ice,  vegetation  reoccupied  the  area 
in  successive  waves.  First  the  circumboreal  plants,  driven  by  the 
rising  temperatures,  followed  close  upon  the  retreating  feet  of  the 
glaciers.  In  the  hollows  were  lakes  and  ponds  which  were  soon  oc- 
cupied by  a  swamp  flora.  Following  these  came  the  conifers,  to 
rehabilitate  the  land  with  a  forest  covering. 

About  six  regions  of  North  America  are  now  regarded  as  ancient 
centers  of  plant  migration.  From  these  the  northward  movement 
began  at  the  close  of  the  glacial  age,  and  some  of  them  furnished  the 
material  for  replanting  the  land  denuded  by  the  ice.  Two  of  these 
are  important  in  the  present  discussion.  The  Arctic  flora  has  already 
been  mentioned  as  having  left  its  traces  on  the  tops  of  the  highest 
mountains,  but  it  is  hardly  represented  by  any  woody  species  except 
a  few  dwarf  willows  and  heaths. 

Two  centers  of  distribution  remain  to  be  considered.  One  of  these 
occupied  a  strip  of  the  Pacific  coast  from  northern  California  to 
Washington  west  of  the  Cascades.  From  it  species  moved  southward, 
northward,  and  eastward.  Some  have  now  reached  the  Bitter  Root 
Mountains  and  the  Flathead  Valley,  others  have  passed  on  as  far  as 
the  Black  Hills.  Those  trees  which  have  arrived  from  the  Pacific 
center  are  the  grand  fir,  the  Douglas  spruce,  the  western  larch,  the 
white  pine,  the  hemlocks,  the  arbor  vitaei,  the  yew,  the  mountain  ash, 
the  black  cottonwood,  the  cascara,  the  flowering  dogwTood,  several 
willows,  and  many  lesser  plants. 

The  other  source  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  flora  lies  in  the  far-off 
Appalachians  of  the  Carolinas  and  southward,  where  the  flora  is 
one  of  great  antiquity.  Some  of  its  species  have  stayed  at  home,  but 
others  have  wandered  far  afield.  Those  which  have  gone  farthest 
are  those  most  easily  aided  by  the  wind  in  the  distribution  of  their 
seeds.  From  the  Appalachian  country  some  plants  moved  into  Texas 
and  Kansas,  others  followed  the  Atlantic  coast  northward  and  oc- 
cupied the  country  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  region  east  of  Hud- 
son Bay.  Still  others  wandered  far  to  the  Northwest,  following  the 
streams  across  the  plains  or  north  into  Canada  and  thence  across  the 
continent,  reaching  the  Pacific  shores  at  Cook  Inlet.  In  the  Rocky 
Mountains  some  of  these  moved  southward,  as  the  white  spruce, 
said  to  occur  in  a  few  places  in  Montana,  but  common  throughout 
Canada  and  the  northeast.  Among  other  trees  from  this  source 
might  be  mentioned  two  species  of  dwarf  juniper,  the  common  cot- 
tonwood of  the  Missouri  Valley,  the  balsam  cottonwood  and  the 


12  THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 

aspen,  the  box  elder  and  the  paper  birch,  besides  a  number  of  wil- 
lows and  lesser  shrubs. 


4i9 

t 

*JjjB 

i 

1 

Fit- 

Fig.  4.— A  forest  of  Lodgepole  Pine  in  the  Glacier  National  Park.    August. 

With  these  two  centers  in  mind  as  the  contributors  to  our  flora 
in  the  most  liberal  way,  there  remain  to  consider  some  which  are 


THE   FORESTS.  13 

indigenous,  supposed  to  be  relicts  of  a  previous  age  when,  owing  to 
a  more  humid  climate,  they  were  more  widely  distributed  than  now. 
Among  such  are  the  Engelmann  spruce,  alpine  fir,  yellow  and  lodge- 
pole  pines,  all  very  common  and  widely  distributed  species. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  northern  Rocky  Mountain  country, 
the  eastern  and  western  floras  overlap,  and  there,  mingled  with  both, 
are  the  remnants  of  an  ancient  indigenous  flora  and  the  traces  of  an 
Arctic  migration. 

Among  the  several  climatic  factors  which  influence  vegetation 
undoubtedly  the  most  important  are  rainfall  and  evaporation.  Tem- 
perature is  likewise  important,  but  within  the  area  under  discussion 
its  influence  is  seen  more  in  the  distribution  of  species  within  certain 
limits  of  altitude  than  of  latitude.  Important  as  the  annual  rain- 
fall is  in  determining  the  character  and  extent  of  the  forest,  more 
important  still  is  the  seasonal  distribution  of  rain.  The  forests  of 
the  Ohio  Valley  are  deciduous,  broad-leaved  woods  of  oak,  hickory, 
maple,  and  other  species  demanding  ample  supplies  of  water,  which 
are  provided  in  an  annual  precipitation  of  40  to  50  inches,  much  of 
which  falls  in  the  summer.  Here  also  is  a  relatively  low  rate  of 
evaporation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  forests  of  western  Oregon  are 
mainly  coniferous  and  evergreen;  the  total  rainfall  is  50  to  100 
inches,  but  it  occurs  mostly  outside  the  growing  season.  The  sum- 
mers are  usually  too  dry  for  anything  but  hard-leaved  trees,  except 
where  soil  waters  are  near  the  surface.  The  Rocky  Mountain  region 
is,  in  these  respects,  similar  to  the  west  coast,  especially  in  its  most 
heavily  timbered  sections. 

Contrary  to  a  somewhat  prevalent  theory,  the  forest  follows  the 
rain;  not  the  rain  the  forest.  There  is  no  evidence  at  present  that 
the  forests  have  any  influence  on  precipitation.  The  relation  of 
forest  crops  to  climate  has  long  been  an  object  of  thorough  research 
in  Germany,  and  many  facts  are  nowT  well  established. 

The  southeastern  States  of  the  Union  have  a  rainfall  of  50  to  TO 
inches  a  year.  East  of  an  irregular  line  from  eastern  Texas  to  Maine 
is  a  region  having  10  to  50  inches  a  year.  Westward  the  annual 
rainfall  decreases  to  10  to  20  inches,  including  the  plains  country, 
roughly  from  Canada  to  Mexico  and  from  the  eastern  line  of  the 
Dakotas  to  the  Cascade  Mountains.  The  higher  altitudes  of  the 
Rockies  are  favored  with  somewhat  more,  and  are  marked  by  the 
heavier  forest  formations.  Fifteen  inches  a  year  is  about  as  little 
as  will  allow  forest  growth,  except  by  the  mitigation  of  certain  fac- 
tors, as  lower  temperatures,  less  wind,  higher  relative  humidity,  and 
lower  rate  of  evaporation.  The  areas  of  lowest  precipitation  are 
either  prairie  or  desert. 

Throughout  the  mountain  country  there  is  more  or  less  definite 
relation   between    topography    and    local    forest    distribution.     The 


14 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


forested  and  the  unforested  slopes  do  not  always  stand  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  points  of  the  compass.     The  conditions  which  occur 


Fig.  5— White  Pine,  in  the  Flathead  Valley,  Montana.    July. 

about  Missoula  may  be  cited  as  an  illustration.     Here  it  is  noticeable 
that  all  the  highest  points  are  forested  and  most  of  the  lower  slopes 


THE    FORESTS.  15 

are  grassland;  and  somewhere  between,  the  forest  and  the  grassland 
merge;  also  that  the  northern  and  eastern  slopes  are  wooded  to  the 
base,  w;hile  the  others  are  bare.  These  features  are  purely  a  response 
to  the  distribution  and  storage  of  soil  waters.  Southern  and  western 
slopes  exposed  to  sun  and  wind  are  too  dry  for  the  growth  of  trees; 
the  northern  and  eastern  exposures  are  more  favorable,  for  there  the 
snow  lies  later  in  the  spring,  the  heat  is  less  intense  in  summer,  and 
at  all  times  evaporation  proceeds  more  slowly.  The  drier  slopes,  if 
wooded  at  all,  are  usually  clothed  sparsely  with  yellow  pine  and 
Douglas  spruce ;  the  other  slopes  with  larch  and  Douglas  spruce  and 
lodgepole  pine.  Thus  it  appears  that  not  only  the  features  of  local 
forest  distribution  are  under  topographic  control,  but  also  the  com- 
position of  the  forests  and  the  proportions  of  the  various  species. 

One  is  impressed  by  the  fact  that  the  forest  species  themselves 
diifer  much  in  their  requirements.  Some  are  like  the  meek;  they  are 
modest  in  their  demands  and  they  inherit  the  earth ;  others  maintain 
a  sort  of  aloofness,  circumscribed  by  rigid  demands  of  their  own 
organization  to  a  particular  set  of  conditions.  As  an  example  of  the 
latter  is  the  western  whke  pine ;  limited  by  requirements  of  moisture 
in  soil  and  air,  by  a  scant  production  of  seed  and  by  peculiar  habits 
of  growth  from  the  seed,  by  a  relatively  narrow  range  of  favorable 
temperatures,  by  a  marked  susceptibility  to  disease  and  to  injury  by 
fire,  its  distribution  is  restricted  to  the  Cascade  Mountains  and 
especially  favorable  situations  in  the  northern  Rockies.  On  the 
other  hand  its  relative,  the  yellow  pine,  easily  satisfied  with  soil 
and  moisture  conditions,  enduring  a  temperature  range  of  160  de- 
grees or  more,  early  and  prolific  in  bearing  seeds  of  good  vitality 
and  germinative  power,  resistant  to  fire  and  disease,  is  found  from 
the  British  Possessions  to  Mexico  and  from  the  Black  Hills  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific. 

Thus  might  be  summarized  the  nature  and  habits  of  any  forest 
species,  and  it  would  be  found  that  such  facts  bear  an  intimate 
relation  to  its  geographic  distribution;  and  conversely  the  distribu- 
tion of  a  species  indicates  the  range  of  its  requirements  and  adapta- 
bility. 

Among  the  most  significant  and  interesting  facts  of  forest  distri- 
bution are  what  are  known  as  vegetation  cycles  or  succession  of  types. 
A  given  forest  may  not  be  the  permanent  or  final  type  of  forest 
which  is  to  occupy  the  area.  An  example  may  be  found  in  the 
transition  from  grassland  to  heavy  forest  evident  in  various  places 
in  the  intermountain  region.  The  prairie  is  gradually  invaded  by 
the  forest  and  ultimately  yields  to  it  fully.  The  pioneer  in  this 
invasion  is  the  common  yellow  pine,  closely  followed  by  the  Douglas 
spruce.  Through  centuries  the  forest  increases,  and  the  soil,  enriched 
by  the  deposits  of  vegetable  matter,  becomes  more  capable  of  retain- 
30408°— 18 3 


16 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


ing  moisture.    When  this  condition  has  been  reached  other  trees  are 
able  to  maintain  a  foothold,  and  being  more  tolerant  of  shade  than 


Fig.  6.— White  Pine,  on  Priest  River,  northern  Idaho.    Tree  over  3  feet  in  diameter; 
young  Western  Hemlocks  in  the  foreground.    July. 

the  pines,  grow  up  among  them  and  gradually  crowd  them  out. 
The  grass  and  the  first  growth  of  shrubs  entirely  disappear,  and  a 


THE   FORESTS.  17 

forest  of  entirely  different  aspect  achieves  dominance  over  the  whole 
area.  Along  the  shores  of  Flathead  Lake  are  forests  of  fir,  larch, 
and  spruce,  mixed  with  some  hardwoods,  which  can  be  traced  back 
to  the  beginnings  of  pines  and  grassland. 

Slide-rock  areas  are  common  everywhere  in  this  region.  They 
vary  from  the  clear  gray  of  freshly  broken  rock  fragments  of  the 
talus  to  forested  slopes  in  all  stages  of  development.  Thus  the  rocks 
support  a  lichen  crust  which  is  gradually  replaced  by  mosses.  Under 
disintegrating  influences  affecting  the  surface  layers  of  the  rock  and 
the  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  a  foothold  is  given  for  small 
herbs,  and  then  for  bushes,  and  at  last  for  the  forest. 

Similarly,  changes  are  slowly  transforming  ponds  into  bogs  and 
bogs  into  solid  ground,  with  corresponding  changes  in  the  plant 
covering.  River  deltas  and  bars  first  occupied  by  the  sand-bar 
willow  increase  in  height  and  area  by  the  augmenting  influence  of 
the  willow  itself,  giving  place  to  cottonwood,  alder,  and  birch,  and 
finally  to  spruce  and  other  species. 

Examples  might  be  cited  indefinitely,  illustrating  the  march  of 
forest  development  through  changes  by  insensible  degrees  which 
pass  unnoticed  from  generation  to  generation.  The  tendency  is 
toward  a  climax  type,  which,  so  long  as  the  climate  does  not  change, 
will  maintain  a  balance  among  its  constituent  species,  among  which 
some  will  be  dominant  and  others  dependent.  In  the  climax  forest 
they  will  always  be  shade-enduring  species,  for  so  long  as  the  stand 
is  open,  as  it  must  be  with  species  intolerant  of  shade,  just  so  long 
may  other  and  more  tolerant  ones  enter.  Traits  of  a  species  which 
give  dominance  in  a  forest  society  may  be  rapid  growth  in  height, 
tolerance  of  shade,  simplicity  of  soil  requirements — either  of  these 
or  all  of  them  taken  collectively.  But  even  in  a  climax  forest  there 
is  no  truce  to  the  warfare ;  there  is  merely  balance  of  the  contending 
forces.  Disturb  this  balance  by  the  removal  of  a  part,  and  battle  is 
again  joined,  with  the  advantage  to  one  side  or  the  other. 

Looking,  then,  into  the  distant  future,  we  might  expect  changes  to 
come  which,  if  left  untouched  by  human  agency,  would  end  in  com- 
plete forest  covering  of  the  land  and  growth  in  density  as  well  as  in 
area.  Such  changes,  however,  are  in  their  nature  and  progress  like 
geological  changes  of  erosion  and  deposition,  of  elevation  and  sub- 
sidence, always  toward  a  more  or  less  certain  and  definite  conclusion. 
But  with  the  forests  the  hand  of  man  can  affect  the  result  and  is  most 
sure  to  do  so. 


18 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


Fig.  7.— Whitebark  Pine  in  Glacier  National  Park.    About  16 inches  diameter;  altitude 

about  6,500  feet. 


II.  THE  SPECIES. 


The  conifers  are  members  of  the  pine  family.  Those  of  this  region 
are,  with  one  exception,  evergreens.  The  majority  are  needle-leaf 
trees  which  bear  cones  and  seeds  provided  with  thin,  wing-like  ap- 
pendages, which  facilitate  their  distribution  by  the  wind.  The  seeds 
are  produced  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  flat,  scale-like  structure, 
though  in  some  cases  not  obviously  so.  The  exposed  position  of  the 
seeds  is  a  mark  of  one  of  the  primary  divisions  of  the  seed-bearing 
plants,  viz,  the  gymnosperms ;  the  other  one  of  the  primary  divisions, 
the  angiosperms,  is  characterized  by  the  production  of  seeds  inclosed 
in  a  pod,  capsule,  or  other  structure.  The  flowers  of  the  pine  family 
are  simple,  inconspicuous  structures,  which  open  early  in  the  season. 
They  are  always  of  two  kinds ;  one  kind,  which  are  relatively  few  in 
number,  ultimately  matures  the  seeds;  the  other  kind  is  produced 
in  far  greater  numbers  and  bears  the  pollen.  Members  of  the  pine 
family  are  all  woody  plants;  most  of  them,  the  largest  of  our  forest 
trees,  have  straight  central  shaft  and  symmetrical  growth;  others  are 
more  or  less  irregular  in  form  and  of  low  and  spreading  habit. 

The  flowers,  and  later  the  cones,  consist  of  a  central  axis  upon 
which  are  closely  arranged  scale-like  structures  in  spiral  or  circular 
order.  The  male  or  pollen  flowers  vary  from  an  eighth  of  1  inch  to 
2  inches  in  length,  and  on  the  lower  surface  of  each  scale  are  two  or 
more  minute  sacs,  in  which  the  pollen  in  produced.  This  pollen  is 
usually  discharged  in  May  or  June,  and  the  flowers  then  usually  drop 
off,  though  often  they  may  be  found  dry  and  withered,  clinging  to 
the  branch.  The  pollen  of  many  species  is  produced  in  such  quanti- 
ties that  it  issues  from  the  crowns  of  the  trees,  when  stirred  by  the 
slightest  breeze,  in  clearly  visible  clouds,  dustlike,  and  settles  on  the 
surrounding  vegetation  as  a  yellow  powder,  or  washed  by  rivulets 
into  golden  windrows.  Some  of  this  pollen  falls,  perchance,  upon 
the  female  or  seed-producing  flowers,  where  it  effects  fertilization. 
Pollination  of  the  flowers  is  thus  left  solely  to  chance  through  the 
agency  of  wind,  and  the  fact  of  so  much  waste  necessitates  the  pro- 
duction of  a  vastly  greater  quantity  of  the  pollen  than  is  actually 
used.  The  male  germ  cell  in  the  pollen  grain  must  unite  with  a  fe- 
male germ  cell  in  another  flower,  in  order  that  a  seed  may  be  pro- 
duced, and  one  such  union  is  necessary  for  each  seed.    The  female 

19 


20 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


flowers,  so  called,  also  possess  a  central  axis,  though  in  this  case  there 
are  two  series  of  lateral  members  instead  of  one.  One  series  is  called 
the  scales;  these  bear  the  potential  seeds  upon  their  upper  surfaces, 
and  later  form  the  principal  material  of  the  cone.    The  other  series 


Fig.  8.— Limber  Pine.    On  an  exposed  ridge  east  of  the  Divide. 


is  known  as  the  bracts,  one  of  which  is  situated  below  each  scale.. 
In  the  earlier  condition  of  the  cone  the  bracts  are  usually  conspicu- 
ous and  surpass  the  scales,  but  later  the  scales  outgrow  the  bracts  and 
in  the  majority  of  cases  conceal  them. 


THE    SPECIES.  21 

The  cone  fruit  is  matured  in  one  or  two  years.  Some  species  then 
spread  apart  the  scales  of  the  cone  upon  drying  and  allow  the  seeds 
to  fall  out;  they  are  carried  away  by  tihe  wind.  Seeds  thus  dis- 
tributed are  usually  provided  with  an  ample  and  thin  membranous 
wing  and  a  kernel  of  oily  material  that  is  somewhat  lighter  in  weight 
than  starch,  a  common  reserve  material  in  seeds  distributed  by  other 
means.  Seeds  of  this  group  of  plants  have  usually  a  hard  outer  shell 
inclosing  a  mass  of  rich  oily  food  material,  in  the  center  of  which 
is  embedded  the  germ  or  embryo.  The  latter  is  the  young  tree,  con- 
sisting of  a  cylindrical  stem  terminated  at  one  end  by  the  initial  root 
structure,  and  at  the  other  by  seed  leaves  or  cotyledons  to  the  number 
of  two  or  more.  The  food  material  serves  the  young  plant  until  it 
becomes  established  in  the  soil;  the  seed  leaves  then  spread  apart 
and  remain  throughout  the  first  season  as  leaf-like  structures. 

The  seeds  of  most  conifers  under  proper  conditions  germinate  in 
one  to  two  wTeeks.  With  some  exceptions  they  are  of  transient  via- 
bility. Conifers  as  a  class  have  leaves  of  hard  or  leathery  texture, 
which  lessens  the  amount  of  moisture  they  impart  to  the  air ;  conse- 
quently they  are  often  found  in  situations  too  dry  for  broad-leaved 
trees.  They  are  trees  of  hardy  nature,  are  widely  and  abundantly 
distributed  over  the  earth,  and  are  plants  of  ancient  origin,  whose 
ancestors  were  a  dominant  type  of  vegetation  in  earlier  periods  of 
the  earth's  history. 

The  members  of  the  pine  family  are  classified  mainly  upon  the 
basis  of  the  form  and  structure  of  the  leaves  and  cones,  though  other 
features,  such  as  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  qualities  of  the  wood, 
and  the  characters  of  the  bark,  are  likewise  important.  Beyond  these 
characters  each  species  has  its  own  peculiar  limitations  as  to  light, 
temperature,  moisture,  and  other  factors  which  influence,  or  deter- 
mine, its  local  and  general  distribution. 

THE  PINES. 

The  pines  are  easily  recognized  by  the  form  and  arrangement  of 
their  leaves,  which  are  usually  from  2  to  6  inches  in  length,  needle- 
like and  clustered  in  twos,  threes,  or  fives.  They  are  borne  thus  on 
short  lateral  branches,  accompanied  by  a  scale  or  bract  inserted  on 
the  main  branch  just  below  the  position  of  the  short  lateral.  Some 
species  shed  these  bracts  early ;  others  retain  them  for  several  years. 
Species  also  differ  in  the  length  of  time  during  which  they  retain 
their  foliage  leaves.  All  are  bound  to  fall  at  some  time,  but  new 
leaves  come  out  every  spring  while  the  leaves  of  other  years  are  still 
upon  the  branch,  so  that  the  tree  is  never  without  leaves.  On  some 
pines  the  leaves  remain  for  2  years,  in  others  for  3,  4,  5,  or  even  12 
years.    When  they  fall  they  take  with  them  the  small  twig  on  which 


22 


THE    CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


they  grew,  so  that  the  pine  leaves  on  the  forest  floor  are  in  clusters,  as 
they  were  upon  the  tree.  Small,  round  scars  remain  upon  the  branch 
from  which  the  clusters  have  broken  awav. 


Fig.  9. — Southern  Longleaf  Tine.     Illustrating  position  of  staminate  and  ovulate  flowers.     Upper  left, 
a  branch  with  staminate  cones;  right,  a  branch  with  cones  of  throe  ages;  at  the  top  are  two  small  cones 
at  time  of  pollination;  midway  two  cones  a  year  older;  below,  cones  approaching  maturity. 
After  Mohr.    By  permission  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Fig.  10.— Pine  cone,  open.    Below,  to  the  left,  lower  side  of  seed-bearing  scale  showing  bract;  to  the  right, 
the  upper  side  showing  seeds;  above  to  right  and  left,  seeds  with  wings. 
After  Mohr.    By  permission  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


The  buds  produced  at  the  ends  of  branches  appear  to  consist  of 
narrow  overlapping  scales,  covered  with  gum  or  resin.  Beneath  each 
scale  is  a  small  green  body  which  is  the  rudiment  of  a  leaf  cluster 
for  the  following  season.  The  growth  in  length  of  the  branch  in  any 
season  is  but  the  elongation  and  enlargement  of  the  structures  pre- 


THE   SPECIES.  23 

viously  seen  in  the  bud,  and  the  bracts  that  accompany  each  lateral 
twig  are  the  erstwhile  bud  scales. 

The  cones  of  the  pines  are  produced  at  the  outer  ends  of  the 
branch  growth  for  each  season.  They  appear  there  in  an  inconspicu- 
ous form  at  first,  but  as  their  maturity  requires  two  seasons,  they 
appear  when  ripe  at  the  end  of  the  growth  of  the  season  next  pre- 
ceding. The  pollen  flowers,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  at  the  base  of 
the  shoot  of  the  season.  The  mature  cones  of  the  pine  are  oval  or 
oblong  in  form,  hard,  woody,  and  vary  greatly  in  size  among  the 
native  species. 

There  are  two  series  of  pines,  commonly  known  as  white  and  yel- 
low. The  former,  among  the  species  of  the  northern  Rockies,  is  rec- 
ognized by  leaves  borne  in  clusters  of  .five  and  by  the  smoother  points 
of  the  cone  scale ;  the  wood  of  the  white  pine  is  usually  softer,  lighter 
in  weight  and  color,  and  less  resinous  than  that  of  the  yellow  pine. 
The  leaves  of  the  yellow  pines  are  in  twos  or  threes;  the  cone  scales 
are  prickly,  and  the  wood  darker  and  more  resinous. 

The  western  yellow  pine. — The  most  common  and  widespread  of 
the  pines  of  the  northern  Rockies  is  the  one  known  as  the  Western 
Yellow  Pine  {Pinus  ponderosa).  It  is  found,  in  fact,  all  over  the 
western  half  of  North  America,  from  the  Black  Hills  to  the  coast  and 
from  British  Columbia  to  Mexico,  in  some  places  forming  splendid 
forests,  in  others  reduced  to  scattered  and  impoverished  specimens 
along  the  rim  rock  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Yellowstone.  It  is  the 
most  drouth  resisting  of  our  forest  trees.  It  gradually  invades  the 
grasslands  and  covers  them  with  forests.  It  is  a  tree  that  demands 
a  great  deal  of  light,  hence  it  never  forms  dense  forests,  but  more  or 
less  open  stands  with  grass  and  some  shrubs  beneath.  Its  seeds  are 
scattered  far  and  in  great  numbers. 

This  tree  is  recognized  by  its  leaves,  cones,  and  bark.  The  leaves 
are  about  6  inches  in  length,  the  longest  of  any  of  the  Montana  pines. 
They  are  usually  found  in  clusters  of  three.  The  cones  are  oval, 
about  4  inches  in  length,  firm,  dark  brown  or  purplish,  and  each 
scale  is  armed  at  the  end  with  a  sharp  recurved  barb  or  pickle,  which 
later  falls  off.  As  in  all  pines,  there  are  two  seeds  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  each  scale,  and  below  the  scale  a  very  small  and  inconspicuous 
bract.  The  cones  open  in  August  or  September  to  discharge  their 
seeds.  Squirrels  are  very  fond  of  the  seeds  and  cut  off  and  store  great 
quantities  of  the  cones;  several  bushels  may  sometimes  be  thus  stored 
away  beneath  a  pile  of  logs  or  brush,  where  tell-tale  piles  of  scales 
reveal  the  secret,  and  may  lead  to  the  loss  of  the  store  if  some  seed- 
hunting  forester  happens  by. 

But  some  seeds  escape  the  squirrels,  and  perchance  also  the  birds 
and  mice,  and,  if  they  fall  on  good  ground  and  are  favored  with 
moisture  and  warmth,  in  time  bring  forth  young  trees.    At  first  there 

30408°— 1S 4 


24 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


appears  a  short  stem  topped  by  a  circle  of  small  seed  leaves  whose 
tips  are  still  bound  within  the  coat  of  the  seed,  whence  they  are  draw- 
ing food  for  the  young  tree  until  it  becomes  firmly  rooted  in  the  soil. 
After  a  few  days  the  seed  drops  off,  the  seed  leaves  spread  wide  apart, 
and  out  of  the  center  of  the  circle  arises  a  tender  stem  with  delicate 
pale  green  leaves,  much  like  the  seed  leaves,  but  shorter.  As  the  stem 
grows  longer,  its  leaves  are  single,  are  not  arranged  in  a  circle,  but 
are  alternate.  The  small  stem  with  its  tender  leaves  is  the  beginning 
of  the  huge  trunk  of  later  years.    The  first  summer  it  grows  only  an 


v^^^38a8SMl/i! Ill   mm  /fj?  S  &"'  S&y 

~^^8|||| 

il^gg 

^* 

Sfes:  '           ';-*•-. "^^ 

^ia 

Fig.  11.— Western  Yellow  Pine.  A  branch  taken  in  July.  The  small  cones  in  the  center 
above  were  pollinated  in  May  preceding;  the  larger  cones  below  are  a  year  older,  and  would 
have  ripened  in  late  August.    About  one-third  natural  size. 

inch  or  two  above  the  seed  leaves,  and  closes  the  season  with  a  straight 
stem  and  no  branches,  but  its  root  has  gone  deep  into  the  soil,  where 
the  earth  seldom  dries  out.  At  this  stage  the  small  top  above  ground 
needs  little  water,  but  the  young  tree  is  getting  ready  its  roots  to  feed 
the  larger  top  which  is  soon  to  come.  No  buds  are  formed  the  first 
season.  The  next  season  the  stem  renews  its  groAvth,  and  the  roots  are 
extended  farther  into  the  soil.  The  stem  lengthens  in  early  summer, 
if  conditions  are  favorable,  to  several  times  the  growth  it  made  in  the 
first  season,  and  ends  with  the  formation  of  a  terminal  bud  and  sev- 
eral lateral  buds  close  under  the  terminal  one.  These  lateral  buds 
are  the  forerunners  of  the  first  of  the  circles  of  branches  which  are 
formed  at  intervals  and  characterize  the  growth  of  this  and  other 
species. 


THE   SPECIES.  25 

The  trunk  of  the  tree  may  reach  a  diameter  of  5  or  6  feet  and  a 
height  of  150  feet.  Its  bark  is  yellowish  in  color,  divided  by  deep 
grooves  into  oblong  areas  of  fairly  uniform  size. 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  of  large  importance  commercially,  and 
lumber  from  it  is  the  principal  product  of  many  mills  throughout 
the  timbered  portion  of  the  State  of  Montana.  It  is  strong  and 
durable,  and  is  much  used  in  buildings  and  in  various  forms  of 
heavier  construction. 

The  rock  pine  (Pinus  scopulorum)  closely  resembles  the  western 
yellow  pine,  and  there  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  whether  it  should 
stand  as  a  separate  species.  Some  authors  regard  it  as  merely  a 
variety  of  Pinus  ponderosa,  while  others  consider  it  merely  the 
mountain  form  of  this  species.  It  is  found  from  the  Yellowstone 
Park  southward  and  mainly  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Divide. 

This  tree  may  reach  a  height  of  150  feet  and  a  diameter  of  5  or  6 
feet.  The  bark  is  deeply  furrowed.  The  leaves  occur  in  clusters 
of  2  or  3,  usually  3,  are  4  to  6  inches  long,  and  are  bunched  near  the 
ends  of  the  branches.  The  cones  may  reach  as  much  as  5  inches  in 
length,  with  scales  thickened  at  the  ends  and  armed  with  a  sharp 
recurved  prickle. 

The  lodgepole  pine. — Next  among  the  pines  from  the  standpoint 
of  distribution  is  the  lodgepole  (Pinus  contorta).  It  occurs  from 
Alaska  and  the  British  possessions  southward  into  Colorado  and 
California.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  State  of  Montana  west 
of  the  Divide;  in  the  central  and  eastern  part  more  sparingly, 
scattered  in  diminishing  numbers  along  the  river  banks  and  the 
higher  elevations  of  land  in  the  plains  region.  Its  demands  upon 
soil  moisture  are  somewhat  greater  than  those  of  the  yellow  pine; 
hence  it  flourishes  upon  northern  slopes,  on  high  ridges  where  win- 
ter's snows  lie  deep,  and  far  to  the  northward  it  forms  dense 
thickets  around  the  mountain  lakes.  One  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  lodgepole  forest  is  its  density.  It  grows  while  young  in  almost 
impenetrable  thickets,  but  thins  gradually  with  age  to  a  stand  of 
clean  and  slender  poles,  and  attains  sometimes  a  foot  or  two  in 
diameter  and  a  height  of  50  to  100  feet. 

The  leaves  of  the  lodgepole  pine  are  2  to  3  inches  long  and  are  borne 
in  pairs.  The  cones  are  usually  less  than  2  inches  in  length,  rather 
sharply  tapering  and  one-sided,  the  scales  prickly.  The  cones  hang 
with  persistency  to  the  branches  and  open  very  slowly.  Branches 
may  be  found  with  the  cones  of  10  or  more  years  still  in  position  and 
unopened.  The  reason  appears  to  be  that  these  cones  do  not  always 
dry  sufficiently  on  the  branch.  Sometimes  a  fire  singes  the  tops  of 
the  trees.  The  heat,  or  the  drying  which  follows  the  killing  of  the 
tree,  opens  the  cones  and  allows  the  seeds,  which  are  small  and  light, 
to  be  carried  far  and  wide  by  the  wind.    The  seeds  of  the  lodgepole 


26  THE    CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 

are  thus  sown  sometimes  within  two  days  of  the  passing  of  the  fire, 
and  being  early  on  the  ground  and  in  great  numbers  are  enabled  often 
to  preoccupy  the  ground  to  the  exclusion  of  everything  else.     The 


Fig.  12.— Three  western  Montana  trees  near  Flathead  Lake.    Left,  Western  Larch;  center, 
Douglas  Spruce;  right,  Lodgepole  Pine.    The  Lodgepole  is  about  a  foot  in  diameter.    July . 

seeds  thus  released  are  not  one  crop  merely,  but  the  combined  fruitage 
of  several  years.  The  uniform  density  of  lodgepole  reproduction 
over  wide  areas  is  a  natural  result  of  wind  sowing. 


THE   SPECIES.  27 

The  bark  of  the  lodgepole  is  thin  and  scaly,  except  sometimes  at 
the  base  of  older  trees  where  it  breaks  up  into  rectangular  blocks. 
The  wood  is  highly  resinous,  but  not  very  durable.  It  is  used  to 
some  extent  for  railroad  ties,  mine  timbers,  and  telephone  poles,  and 
where  treated  with  wood-preserving  agencies  serves  these  purposes 
wrell.    It  is  not  as  a  rule  manufactured  into  lumber. 

The  western  wMte  pine  (Pinws  monticola)  is  found  only  in  the 
somewhat  narrow  range  from  the  British  possessions  south  on  the 
west  slope  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  into  Montana  and  Idaho  and  in 
the  Cascade  Mountains  into  California.  Its  range  in  Montana  is 
confined  to  the  western  end  of  the  State,  where  it  seeks  the  better 
watered  localities,  either  along  stream  bottoms,  where  it  reaches  its 
best  development,  or  on  the  windward  sides  of  the  mountains  where 
the  precipitation  is  abundant.  A  tree  less  sensitive  to  shade  than  the 
others,  it  contends  well  with  other  species  in  its  earlier  years,  grows 
rapidly  in  height,  and  overtops  its  rivals.  Its  seeds  are  provided  with 
ample  wings  and  are  scattered  far,  though  in  rate  of  reproduction  it 
is  much  behind  the  lodgepole  and  yellow  species.  It  is  much  subject 
to  disease  and  pests,  and  is  easily  injured  by  fire.  These  characteris- 
tics combine  with  other  factors  to  limit  its  distribution. 

This  species  may  be  recognized  by  its  leaves  alone.  These  are  five 
in  each  cluster,  3  or  4  inches  long,  very  slender,  and  of  a  pale  green 
color.  The  twigs  are  smooth,  and  the  bracts  are  shed  early.  The 
cones  are  nearly  cylindrical,  8  to  10  inches  long,  and  about  1J  inches 
in  thickness.  The  scales  of  the  cone  are  large,  rather  thin,  and  light 
brown  in  color.  In  its  earlier  years  the  tree  has  a  smooth,  light- 
colored  bark,  but  with  age  this  changes  to  a  darker  gray,  broken  up 
into  small  rectangular  areas. 

This  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  forest  trees  of  Montana  and  Idaho. 
White  pine  lumber,  owing  to  its  soft,  even  grain,  clear  color,  strength, 
and  desirability  for  many  purposes,  has  a  high  commercial  value. 
The  best  forests  of  this  species  are  found  in  northern  Idaho. 

The  whitebark  pine  {Pinus  albicaulls)  in  its  general  range  extends 
from  Canada  southward  to  Wyoming  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  to 
southern  California  through  the  Cascade  Range  and  the  Sierras.  It 
is  a  tree  of  the  higher  altitudes,  being  found  in  Montana  usually 
above  5,000  feet,  and  from  there  up  to  the  timber  line,  where  it  be- 
comes reduced  in  the  bleaker  situations  to  straggling  and  decrepit 
forms.  In  the  more  sheltered  places  where  sufficient  soil  moisture 
is  available  it  grows  to  a  diameter  of  4  or  5  feet,  though  usually  much 
smaller,  and  may  reach  a  height  of  about  60  feet.  In  places  it  forms 
pure  forests,  but  often  occurs  in  mixture  with  fir  and  spruce. 

The  form  of  the  tree  is  characteristic.  Its  branches  have  a  strong 
upward  curvature,  which  gives  the  crown  of  the  tree  a  candelabrum- 


28 


THE   CONIFERS   OF   THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


like  effect  by  which  the  older  ones  can  be  recognized  almost  as  far  as 
they  can  be  seen.  One  of  the  features  of  the  tree  is  its  frequent  habit 
of  growing  in  groups,  sometimes  five  or  six  stems  appearing  to  come 
from  the  same  root.    This  is  evidently  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cones 


Fig.  13.— Western  Larch,  in  the  Flathead  Valley. 


of  this  species  do  not  open  naturally  to  discharge  the  seeds  from 
the  tree  top,  but  fall  to  the  ground  and  disintegrate  from  the  center. 
The  result  of  this  behavior  is  that  a  number  of  seeds  are  liberated  on 
one  spot  and  may  give  rise  to  a  cluster  of  several  trees.    In  time  the 


THE   SPECIES.  29 

competition  between  the  members  of  a  group  results  in  an  advantage 
to  some  and  the  suppression  of  others,  so  that  they  vary  greatly  in 
size,  and  would  seem  to  be  of  different  ages.  Examination  of  the 
stem,  however,  will  usually  show  them  to  be  of  the  same  age. 

The  botanical  characteristics  of  the  species  are  rigid  leaves  about 
2  inches  in  length,  in  clusters  of  five,  and  rather  densely  crowded 
toward  the  ends  of  the  twigs.  The  cones  are  about  3  inches  long, 
purple,  with  thick  heavy  scales.  The  seeds  are  relatively  large,  and, 
owing  to  the  habit  of  the  cones  above  mentioned,  are  almost  devoid 
of  wings.  The  squirrels  frequently  extract  the  seeds  from  these 
cones  while  they  are  still  on  the  tree.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  thin, 
scaly,  and  light  gray.  The  wood  is  often  much  twisted  in  the  grain, 
and  is  soft,  of  even  texture,  and  light  colored.  The  small  size  and 
the  inferior  form  of  the  trunk,  and  the  usual  inaccessibility  of  its 
habitat  render  the  tree  of  little  commercial  value. 

The  limber  fine. — Another  species  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
higher  altitudes  is  the  limber  pine  (Pinus  flce'dis),  the  general  range 
of  which  is  from  Alberta  to  Arizona  and  southern  California.     In 

00 

Montana  this  tree  is  confined  to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Continental 
Divide  and  to  some  of  the  outlying  ranges.  Ordinarily  it  reaches  a 
diameter  of  2  feet,  more  or  less,  and  a  height  of  about  50  feet,  though 
in  sheltered  canyons  it  sometimes  assumes  much  better  form.  When 
it  descends  among  the  dry  and  grassy  foothills,  it  may  be  stunted 
and  dwarfed. 

Botanically  it  is  similar  to  the  preceding  species,  and  its  leaves  and 
twigs  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  it.  The  cones,  however,  are 
somewhat  longer  and  narrower,  tan  colored,  and  have  thinner  scales. 
The  cones,  when  dry,  spread  apart  to  liberate  the  seeds.  The  wood  is 
light  in  color,  though  fine  grained,  owing  to  the  slowness  of  its 
growth.     It  is  of  no  commercial  importance. 

THE  LARCHES. 

The  larches  are  deciduous  conifers.  In  the  fall  the  leaves  turn 
yellow,  and  in  the  winter  the  trees  are  devoid  of  foliage.  Leaves  to 
the  number  of  10  to  40  are  borne  in  brushlike  clusters.  On  the  young- 
est shoots  the  leaves  are  always  singly  arranged  and  equally  distributed 
along  the  branch,  but  at  the  close  of  the  first  season  lateral  buds  ap- 
pear here  and  there  in  the  axils  of  these  single  leaves,  and  these  buds 
give  rise  in  the  next  season  to  clusters  of  leaves.  The  clusters  are 
thus  borne  upon  short,  lateral  branches,  as  in  the  pine,  with  this 
difference  that  in  the  larch  the  number  of  leaves  is  indefinite,  such 
lateral  branches  are  fewer  in  number,  and  they  continue  to  grow 
slowly  during  the  period  in  which  they  bear  leaves.  There  comes  a 
time,  of  course,  when,  owing  to  the  elongation  of  the  branch,  they 
are  left  in  the  shade  and  perish. 


30 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


In  the  early  spring  erect  bright  red  flowers  here  and  there  may  be 
found  on  the  growth  of  the  second  season  preceding;  these  are  the 
seed-bearing  flowers.     In  somewhat  greater  numbers  on  the  same 


year's  growth  are  smaller  yellow  flowers,  which  bear  the  pollen. 
Upon  fertilization  the  red  flowers  turn  downward ;  the  pollen  flowers 
wither  and  fall.  The  fruit  of  the  larch  is  matured  in  one  season. 
The   cone   is   small,   an   inch   and    a   half   or   less   in   length    and 


THE    SPECIES. 


31 


less  than  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  scales  are  thin  and  the  bracts 
protrude  slightly.  The  seeds  are  less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  with  wings  three  or  four  times  the  length  of  the  seed,  that 
provide  for  their  wide  distribution  on  even  moderate  winds. 

The  early  growth 
of  the  larch  is  much 
like  that  of  the  pine. 
It  grows  rapidly  un- 
der normal  condi- 
tions, rising  1  to  3 
feet  a  year.  It  needs 
considerable  light 
and  water.  The  form 
of  the  larch  is  nar- 
rowly conical  in  out- 
line, with  a  thin  open 
crown  and  numerous 
slender  twigs.  The 
species  of  the  larch 
are  few.  There  are 
but  /four  in  North 
America,  and  two  of 
them  occur  in  Mon- 
tana. The  larches  arc 
partial  to  cold  regions. 

The  western  larch 
(Larix  occiden  talis ) 
is  found  only  in 
northwestern  North 
America.  '  It  is  also 
known  as  Tamarack, 
and  occurs  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains 
south  to  northern 
Idaho  and  northwest- 
ern Montana,  and  in 
the  Cascades  to  Ore- 
gon; its  northern  ex- 
tension lies  w  i  t  h  i  n 
British  Columbia.  In  Montana  it  is  found  west  of  the  Continental 
Divide  in  the  Flathead,  Blackfoot,  Clark's  Fork,  and  Bitter  Root 
Valleys  and  reaches  its  best  development  in  Flathead  and  Lincoln 
Counties.  In  the  drier  portions  of  its  range  it  is  found  on  north 
slopes,  which  provide  lower c temperature  and  greater  soil  moisture. 


Id.  15. — Western  Larch.  A,  Branch  two  years  old;  the 
older  portion  bearing  pollen  flowers  at  a,  and  clusters  of 
leaves  on  short  spurs.  Last  year's  growth  with  leaves 
arranged  singly.  B,  A  cone ;  C,  a  young  seed-bearing 
scale  and  bract.     About  two-thirds  natural  size. 


32  THE   CONIFERS  OF    THE    NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 

The  western  larch  sometimes  reaches  a  diameter  of  5  to  6  feet  and  a 
height  of  nearly  200  feet.  Its  thick  bark  below  is  a  protection  against 
small  fires  that  would  prove!  fatal  to  species  less  favored. 


Fig.  16.— Engelmann  Spruce,  in  Glacier  National  Park.    Scene  on  creek  bottom  in  August. 

The  leaves  of  this  species,  which  are  usually  less  than  2  inches 
in  length,  are  triangular  in  form.  The  number  in  a  cluster  varies 
greatly.  The  cones  are  oval,  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length, 
and  of  a  brown  Color.     The  scales  are  the  conspicuous  parts,  the  tips 


THE   SPECIES.  33 

of  the  bracts  projecting  beyond  their  ends.  The  scales  of  the  cones 
spread  apart  when  ripe,  to  allow  the  seeds,  which  are  borne  on  the 
upper  surface  of  each  scale,  to  disperse.  The  tops  of  older  trees  are 
scraggy  and  unsymmetrical.  The  bark  is  flaky,  gray,  or  sometimes 
resembling  that  of  the  yellow  pine  in  its  oblong  yellowish  blocks. 
The  wood  is  firm,  light  in  color,  but  turns  darker  upon  exposure 
to  light.  It  is  much  used  for  construction  and  interior  finish.  It 
has  considerable  commercial  importance  and  forms  the  chief  output 
of  a  number  of  mills  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Montana. 

Lyaffls  larch  {Larix  LyaMii)  is  also  called  Alpine  Larch.  Its 
range  geographically  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  other  species, 
but  it  is  restricted  to  higher  altitudes,  a  fact  which  greatly  circum- 
scribes the  area  that  it  covers.  It  is  found  at  altitudes  of  7,000 
feet  or  more,  sometimes  in  pure  uniform  stands.  It  may  attain  a 
diameter  of  2  feet  and  a  height  of  50  feet,  but  such  dimensions  are 
exceptional. 

The  marks  by  which  Lyall's  larch  is  recognized  are  the  woolly 
coating  on  the  growth  of  the  last  year  or  two,  and  the  purple  color 
of  the  cones,  which  are  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the  other 
species  and  have  more  prominent  bracts.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  a 
light  gray,  thin  and  scaly.  The  wood  is  hard  and  of  very  fine  grain, 
a  feature,  however,  which  is  common  to  many  species  of  the  high 
mountains  where  growth  is  slow.  The  tree  is  of  no  value  commer- 
cially. 

SPRUCE. 

A  spruce  tree  is  readily  recognized  by  a  few  conspicuous  marks. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  a  tree  of  rather  dense  foliage,  with  short,  rigid,  single 
leaves  alternating  in  position.  The  points  of  the  leaves  are  sharp; 
this  causes  the  branch  to  present  a  prickly  sensation  to  the  touch. 
The  loaves,  moreover,  are  usually  four-angled  in  transverse  section. 
AVhen  the  leaves  fall  from  the  branch  they  leave  a  prominent  peg- 
like- elevation,  by  which  a  spruce  branch  may  be  identified  even  in 
the  absence  of  the  leaves.  The  cones  of  spruces  vary  in  size  with 
the  different  species,  but  they  agree  in  the  suppression  of  the  bracts 
and  the  drooping  attitude  which  they  assume  upon  the  branch.  Two 
seeds  are  borne  on  the  upper  surface  of  each  scale,  and  these,  when 
liberated,  are  provided  with  ample  wings.  The  spruces  are  partial 
to  moist  soils  and  cooler  climates.  Some  of  the  species  are  much 
used  for  paper  pulp  and  produce  lumber  of  fine  quality.  The  Nor- 
way spruce,  an  introduced  species,  is  commonly  cultivated  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States. 

Engelmann  spruce  (Picea  Engelmannii)  is  the  only  native  species 
in  Montana.  Opinions  of  botanists  differ  somewhat  in  this  matter, 
some  holding  that  another  species,  Picea  Columbiana,  also  occurs. 


34 


THE   CONIFERS  OP   THE   NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


Observation,  however,  has  borne  the  conviction  that  there  are  no 
real  or  constant  marks  distinguishing  the  two  species.  This  tree  has 
an  extensive  range.     It  is  found  from  the  Yukon  to  Arizona  and 


Fig.  17.— Engelmann  Spruce,  in  the  upper  Bitter  Root  Valley,  Montana. 


New  Mexico,  over  the  higher  elevations  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
in  the  Cascades  to  northern  California.  In  Montana  it  occurs  at 
altitudes  from  3,000  feet  to  timber  line,  where  it  often  forms  dwarfed 


THE    SPECIES. 


35 


and  stunted  specimens.  It  seeks  wet  soil,  is  abundant  around  lakes, 
where  it  sometimes  forms  pure  forests,  and  along  stream  bottoms,  and 
again  on  high  slopes  where  the  moisture  from  melting  snows  is  peren- 
nial. Owing  to  its  moderate  demand  for  light,  it  often  forms  dense 
forests,  excluding  every  other  form  of  plant  life.  It  grows  also  at 
higher  elevations,  mixed  with  fir  and  pine,  and  on  lower  ground  may 
reach  a  diameter  of  4  and  a  height  of  over  100  feet. 

The  botanical  characters  of 
Engelmann  spruce  are  seen  in 
its  various  parts.  Its  leaves 
are  about  1  inch  long,  and 
often  covered  with  a  whitish 
bloom,  especially  in  younger 
specimens.  They  are  sharp 
pointed  and  stand  out  in  all 
directions  from  the  twig.  The 
cones  are  produced  in  num- 
bers near  the  ends  of  the 
branches.  They  are  about  2 
inches  in  length  and  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, with  thin  scales,  and 
bracts  only  minutely  visible 
at  the  base  of  the  scale.  When 
ripe  the  scales  of  the 
spread  apart,  and  the  seeds 
from  the  tree  tops  are  carried 

great  distances.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  thin,  scaly,  and  gray.  The 
wood  is  light  in  weight  and  color.  At  present  lumber  is  not  exten- 
sively manufactured  from  spruce  in  Montana. 

The  white  spruee  is  reported  as  extending  southward  along  the 
Rocky  Mountains  into  northern  Montana.  This  species  extends 
across  the  continent  from  the  Atlantic  coast  northward  to  Alaska. 
It  is  probable  that  the  white  spruce  is  very  sparingly  distributed  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  within  the  United  States,  and  is,  of  course,  un- 
important. It  is  described  as  a  tree  ordinarily  less  than  75  feet  in 
height,  with  a  diameter  of  1  foot,  more  or  less.  The  foliage  has 
a  light  green  color,  with  a  whitish  tinge,  and  the  }Toung  shoots 
have  a  fetid  odor  when  crushed.  The  leaves  are  somewhat  shorter 
than  those  of  Engelmann  spruce,  and  the  cones,  usually  less  than  2 
inches  in  length,  are  soft  to  the  touch.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is 
brownish  in  color  and  broken  into  thin  scales.  This  is  botanically 
known  as  Picea  Canadensis. 

The  blue  spruce  (Picea  pungens)  is  found  chiefly  in  the  central 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  but  occurs  as  far  north  as  the  Yellowstone 


COne  Fig.  IS. — Eugelmano  Spruce.  .1.  Mature  cone; 
B,  leaf ;  C,  seed  ;  D,  portion  of  twig ;  about 
natural  size. 


36 


THE   CONIFERS   OF   THE   NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


\ 

f  .^'v 

E^KL-  *■»"  ill  ~*        J.JI 

*     * 

> 

1" 

-**■■   B.V 

^AkT       Wmtn      i/f  1 

IT     ..V'1 

* 

'JtiLy                  A*' 

i 

; 

-    r..; 

^iwifli 

■  v  ' ' 

Fig.  19.— Western  Hemlock,  in  Glacier  "National  Park.    The  moist  conditions  are  indicated 
by  the  lichen,  Alectorij,  hanging  from  the  branches. 


THE    SPECIES. 


37 


Park.  It  is  called  "  blue  spruce,"  because  of  the  blue-green  cast  of 
its  foliage,  and  is  of  some  interest  as  being  the  "  State  tree  "  of  Colo- 
rado.   It  is  also  known  as  Picea  Parryana. 

The  blue  spruce  is  a  small  tree  and  differs  from  Engelmann  spruce 
in  having  smooth  instead  of  pubescent  twigs.  In  its  growth  it  usually 
preserves  a  conical  form,  but  often  spreads  its  branches  wide,  and 
may  be  reduced  to  a  shrubby  form  at  high  altitudes.  The  bark  is 
gray,  usually  smooth  and  firm,  in  older  trees  becoming  hard  and 
thick.  The  twigs  are  shiny  and  smooth  and  the  leaves  about  1  inch 
in  length  and  sharp  pointed.  Cones  are  usually  plentiful,  borne 
singly  or  in  clusters,  and  3  or  4  inches  long. 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  of  little  importance  commercially,  but  the 
trees  are  exploited  much  by  horticulturists  for  ornamental  planting 
and  are  widely  grown  throughout  the  country. 


HEMLOCKS. 

Four  species  of  hemlock  are  native  to  North  America.  Twto  of 
these  occur  on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  two  on  the  Pacific.  The  hem- 
locks, like  the  spruces,  prefer  a  cool  climate  and  moist  soil ;  they  are 
also  partial  to  regions  of  relatively  high  atmospheric  moisture. 
They  are  trees  that  endure  much  shade  and  often  grow  in  great 
numbers  under  other  trees  in  a  forest ;  veritable  thickets  of  young 
trees  sometimes  occur  in  such  situations.  In  form  the  hemlocks  have 
some  features  that  are  distinctive.  The  leading  shoot  of  the  tree 
has  a  more  or  less  horizontal  or  nodding  habit  for  a  foot  or  two  of 
its  length;  the  branches,  at  least  the  secondary  ones,  usually  droop, 
and  there  are  many  small  twigs  which,  though  originating  on  sev- 
eral sides  of  the 
branch,  come  to  be 
distributed  in  a 
more    or   less    flat 


spray. 

In  its  botanical 
aspects  the  tree 
may  be  described 
as  f  o  1 1  o  w  s :  Its 
leaves  are  usually 
much  flattened  and 
at  the  base  nar- 
rowed into  a  stalk 

that      becomes  FlG-  20- — Western  Hemlock.     A,  Twig  and  cone  ;  B,  seed-bearing 
.  .  1  scale ;  slightly  enlarged. 

twisted  in  order  to 

bring  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  into  the  plane  occupied  by  the 
spray  of  branches.  The  leaves  are  short  and  usually  lighter  colored 
beneath ;  they  fall  from  the  branch  rapidly  upon  drying  and  leave  a 


38 


THE   CONIFERS   OF   THE    NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


small  protuberance,  similar  to  that  found  in  the  spruces,  but  not  so 
prominent.    The  fruit  of  the  hemlocks  is  a  small  cone  with  thin  scales 


Fig.  21.— Mountain,  or  Black  Hemlock,  in  the  St.  Joe  Mountains  of  northern  Idaho;  on  the 
extreme  left  an  Alpine  Fir;  altitude  about  6,000  feet. 


and  very  inconspicuous  bracts.  The  seeds  mature  in  one  year,  are 
small,  light,  and  well  winged.  The  bark  of  hemlocks  is  dark  colored, 
hard,  and  rough,  -and  less  than '2  inches  in  thickness.     The  bark, 


THE   SPECIES.  39 

moreover,  contains  a  large  amount  of  tannin  and  is  much  used  in 
tanning.  The  wood  is  usually  hard,  brittle,  and  not  very  durable 
upon  exposure  to  the  weather.  The  flowers  of  both  kinds  occur  on 
the  smaller  twigs  in  great  numbers,  opening  early  in  the  spring. 

The  western  hemlock  {Tsuga  heterophylla)  is  found  from  Alaska 
southward  to  northern  California,  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
western  Montana  and  northern  Idaho.  Its  range  in  Montana  is 
confined  to  a  few  places  in  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  State, 
in  the  Flathead  Valley,  the  Glacier  National  Park,  and  in  the  better- 
watered  situations  westward.  The  roots  of  this  tree  spread  thickly 
interwoven  in  the  surface  layer  of  the  soil,  so  that  the  slightest 
ground  fire  is  fatal  to  it.  The  seeds  germinate  readily  upon  old 
rotten  logs  and  stumps  and  on  whatever  surface  sufficient  moisture 
is  retained,  and  the  roots  ultimately  reach  the  soil.  In  regions  espe- 
cially favorable  to  the  growth  of  this  species  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  trees  2  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  with  their  roots  astride  some 
fallen  log,  or  perched  upon  a  stump  12  or  15  feet  high;  occasionally 
the  destruction  of  its  early  support  leaves  the  tree  resting  upon  stilt- 
like roots.  The  young  trees  spring  up  in  enormous  numbers  in  the 
deeper  forests,  and  their  tops  extend  characteristically  in  a  more 
or  less  horizontal  spray.    • 

The  western  hemlock  does  not  reach  its  best  development  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  but  in -western  Washington  and  British  Columbia, 
where  it  reaches  a  diameter  of  5  feet  or  more  and  a  height  sometimes 
of  200  feet.  The  wood  is  useful  for  many  purposes.  Large  quantities 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  It  has,  however,  no  impor- 
tance in  Montana  mills. 

The  leaves  of  this  species  vary  a  great  deal  in  size,  some  a  fourth, 
others  1  inch  in  length,  with  a  median  groove  on  the  upper  side ;  they 
are  thickly  produced  in  alternate  arrangement  along  the  slender 
twigs.  The  cones  are  less  than  1  inch  long  and  one-fourth  to  three- 
eighths  of  1  inch  in  thickness,  pendent  from  the  ends  of  the  twigs. 
The  bark  is  hard  and  rough,  and  exceedingly  rich  in  tannin. 

The  mountain  hemlock  {Tsuga  Mertensiana),  also  called  Black 
Hemlock,  is  sometimes  regarded  by  botanists  as  belonging  to  a  dif- 
ferent genus.  It  bears,  however,  sufficient  resemblance  to  the  hem- 
locks to  be  discussed  here.  It  is  a  native  of  the  higher  altitudes  and 
is  found  from  Alaska  through  the  Cascade  range  to  California,  and 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  northern  Idaho  and  western  Montana. 
It  is  found  in  Montana  only  in  the  extreme  western  portions  of  the 
State.  It  is  found  at  timber  line  and  also  at  lower  altitudes,  where 
it  is  mixed  in  larger  forests  with  pine  and  other  species.  The  tree 
may  attain  a  diameter  of  4  feet,  and  a  height  of  60  feet,  and  bears 
a  dense  and  narrowly  pyramidal  crown,  the  branches  of  which  are 
sometimes  heavily  loaded  with  cones. 


40 


THE   CONIFERS  OF   THE   NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


The  leaves  of  this  species  are  more  pointed  than  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding and  have  a  low  ridge  instead  of  the  groove  on  their  upper 


Fig.  22.— Mountain  Hemlock,  about  4  feet  in  diameter. 


surface.  The  dense  foliage  is  dark  green.  The  cone  is  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  length  and  about  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  cylindrical, 
and  has  thin  scales.    The  seeds  are  small  and  possess  ample  wings, 


THE    SPECIES. 


41 


by  which  they  are  carried  far.  as  the  cone  opens  on  the  tree.  The 
bark  is  gray,  coarse,  and  roughened  by  long  ridges.  The  wood  is 
firm  and  fine  grained  but  of  no  importance. 

DOUGLAS  SPRUCE. 

The  genus  to  which  this  tree  belongs  is  known  to  botany  as  Pseudo- 
tsuga,  which  means  "  false  hemlock."  It  bears  little  resemblance, 
however,  to  the  hemlocks,  spruces,  or  firs,  except  in  its  general 
aspect.  Two  species  are  known,  one  of  which  is  restricted  in  its 
distribution  and  of  little  value;  the  other  is  found  throughout  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region  from  British  Columbia  to  Mexico  and  west 
to  the  coast,  and  is  of  immense  importance  economically.  As  but 
one  species  is  to  be  considered  in  this  discussion,  the  description  of  the 
genus  will  be  included  in  that  of  the  species. 


^\X ^•..jpytfT/''  y^  ^7 

* 

mt 

"~^mk '       ^m  fir 

Im^E^SHWI       *  EST 

Ftg.  23.— Top  of  a  young  Douglas  Spruce. 

The  scientific  name  of  this  species  is  Pseudotsuga  taxifolia.  Sev- 
eral popular  names  are  in  common  usage:  Douglas  spruce,  Douglas 
fir,  Oregon  fir,  red  fir,  yellow  fir,  Oregon  pine,  etc.  The  name  Doug- 
las spruce  is  here  chosen,  since  the  tree  bears  more  resemblance  to 
the  spruce  than  to  the  fir. 

This  tree  is  found  in  practically  all  of  the  coniferous  timbered 
regions  of  the  northern  Rockies.  It  furnishes  a  considerable  part 
of  the  lumber  manufactured  in  this  region.  It  is  often  found  grow- 
ing with  yellow  pine  in  the  drier  situations,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most 
drouth-resistant  species.     It  grows  much  larger,  however,  where  it 


42 


THE   CONIFERS   OP    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


has  abundant  moisture,  and  on  the  coast  whore  the  rainfall  is  ample 
reaches  great  size.     In  that  region  trees  of  this  species  are  some- 


Si 

S3&   bbSAl* 

K&    r~     .#»    ■•*                          '^B 

-*j 

Jf|      Br  vfi<-                             ^ 

5-         i      $ 

" 

■ 

Fig.  24.— Grand  Fir,  typical  form.    A  Pacific  coast  tree  uncommon  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Tree  about  100  feet  high  in  this  case,  but  much  larger  ones  are  to  be  found. 

times  found  with  a  diameter  of  12  feet,  and  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  trees  over  200  feet  in  height. 


THE    SPECIES. 


43 


The  Douglas  spruce  is  given  to  the  formation  of  forests  so  dense 
in  places  as  to  shut  out  all  direct  sunlight  from  the  soil.  The  abun- 
dant seeds  produced  by  this  species  and  the  facility  with  which  they 
are  scattered  by  the  wind  result  in  the  rapid  reforestation  of  cleared 
land.  The  young  trees  come  up  in  great  numbers,  sometimes  in 
impenetrable  thickets,  in  which  the  gradual  suppression  of  the  weaker 
members  brings  about  in  time  a  forest  of  tall,  straight,  and  clear  trees. 
The  large  amount  of  waste  which  naturally  accumulates  upon  the 
ground  and  its  resinous  quality  make  fire  risks  imminent,  and  vast 
areas  of  fine  timber  have  thus  been  lost.  This  tree  is  found  from 
sea  level  in  Oregon  to  altitudes  of  5,000  feet  or  more  in  Montana,  but 


Fig.   25. — Douglas   Spruce.     A,  Cone;   11,   leaf;    C,  bract  and   lower  side   of   seed  bearing 

scale  ;  I),  seed. 

is  found  only  at  altitudes  of  8,000  or  9,000  feet  in  the  southern  limits 
of  its  range. 

In  habit  this  tree  presents  a  straight  central  shaft  and  a  crown 
somewhat  oval  in  outline  except  for  the  sharp  point  of  the  conical 
top.  The  limbs  droop,  curving  upward  at  the  ends.  The  leaves  are 
about  an  inch  in  length,  flat,  blunt,  and  paler  beneath.  They  arise 
alternately  on  all  sides  of  the  smooth  twigs.  When  the  leaves  fall 
they  usually  leave  small  protuberances  on  the  branch,  as  in  the 
hemlock:  they  fall  less  readily,  however,  in  drying.  The  cones  are  2 
to  3  inches  long,  usually  less  than  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  have  thin 
scales,' on  the  upper  surface  of  each  of  which  two  seeds  are  normally 
borne.  One  conspicuous  and  significant  feature  of  the  cones  is  in 
the  bracts,  which  are  three-pointed  and  project  prominently  beyond 
the  end  of  the  scale.  This  alone  is  sufficient  to  identify  the  tree  in 
this  region.  The  cones  hang  downward  on  the  branch,  and  open  on 
the  tree  to  discharge  the  seeds. 


44 


THE   CONIFERS  OF   THE   NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


The  greenish,  seed-bearing  flowers  appear  erect  on  the  young 
branches  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  yellow  pollen  flowers  appear 
near  by  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.    The  cones  are  matured  in  one 


Fig.  26.— Grand  Fir.    In  young  trees  the  bark  is  smooth,  but  it  grows  rougher  with  age. 


season.  The  bark  of  the  tree  becomes  rougher  with  age,  furrowed  by 
long  intersecting  grooves.  In  its  internal  structure  the  bark  reveals 
yellow  streaks  alternating  with  red  or  brownish  ground  tissue  that 
may  also  serve  as  a  mark  of  identification. 


THE   SPECIES. 


45 


The  Douglas  spruce  has  been  planted  in  the  Eastern  States  and 
cultivated  largely  in  Europe.  Its  wood  is  of  great  importance  in 
heavy  construction,  for  ship  building,  for  masts  and  spars,  for  inte- 
rior finish,  and  a  great  variety  of  uses. 

FIRS. 

Most  of  the  true  firs  are  large  forest  trees.  They  are  natives  of  the 
cooler  regions  and  are  partial  to  moist  soils.    For  these  reasons  they 


Fig.  27.- 


-Grand  Fir.     A,  Twig  and  cone  in  natural  position;  B,  bract  and  lower  side  of 
seed-bearing  scale  ;  C,  seed. 


are  found  in  northern  latitudes  and  the  higher  elevations  of  moun- 
tains and  reach  their  best  development  on  river  bottoms,  in  canyons, 
and  on  mountain  slopes  close  to  perennial  snows.  Many  of  them  are 
shade-enduring  species  and  grow  for  years  in  the  shelter  of  thickets. 
Under  favorable  conditions  they  grow  rapidly,  reproduce  plentifully, 
and  are  widely  distributed,  sometimes  in  pure,  sometimes  in  mixed 
stands. 

The  distinctive  marks  of  the  firs  are  usually  recognized  with  ease. 
The  leaves  are  flat,  blunt  at  the  apex,  and  somewhat  narrowed  at 
the  base.    They  arise  equally  from  all  sides  of  the  twig  in  alternate 


46 


THE    CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


order,  but  by  torsion  come  to  lie  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  flat  branch- 
ing system  of  twigs.  When  detached  they  leave  :i  small  round  or 
oval  scar,  smooth,  and  not  elevated  as  in  the  spruce  and  some  other 


Fig.  28.— Branch  of  Grand  Fir.    Condition  in  July. 


genera.  The  leaves  on  the  topmost  branches  usually  curl  sharply  and 
rigidly  upward,  and  so  often  appear  in  contrast  to  those  below.  The 
younger  stems  and  branches  are  usually  smooth,  with  prominent  gum 
blisters.     Flowers  of  both  kinds  are  borne  on  twigs  of  the  previous 


THE   SPECIES. 


47 


year,  the  seed-bearing  rather  few,  the  others  numerous  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  The  pollen  is  scattered  early,  and  the  fruit  is  matured 
in  one  season.  The  cone  always  stands  erect  upon  the  branch,  and 
its  length,  in  different  species,  varies  from  2  to  6  or  8  inches;  it  is 
cylindrical  or  oval  in  form.  The  cones  of  firs  at  maturity  disintegrate 
upon  the  tree,  so  that  seeds,  scales,  and  bracts  are  liberated  together, 
and  the  axis  of  the  cone,  like  a  spike,  is  left  standing  upon  the  branch. 
Two  seeds  are  borne 
on  the  upper  surface 
of  each  scale.  The 
bracts  in  both  Mon- 
tana species  are  en- 
tirely covered  by  the 
scales  in  the  ripe  cone, 
though  they  are  easily 
found  when  the  cone 
is  broken  up.  The 
cones  are  hard  and 
compact,  though  the 
scales  are  thin.  The 
wood  of  most  of  the 
firs  is  light  in  weight 
and  color,  soft,  and 
not  durable  when  ex- 
posed to  the  weather. 
The  lumber  of  some 
species  is  good  for 
certain  purposes,  but 
the  species  native  to 
Montana  are  of  no 
importance  for  lum- 
ber. There  are  two 
species  of  fir  found  in 
this  region. 

The   lowland   or 
grand    -fir     (Abies 

grandis)  reaches  its  best  development  in  Montana  in  the  Flat- 
head country  and  the  moister  valleys  in  the  western  end  of  the 
State  and  the  panhandle  of  Idaho.  Its  general  distribution,  how- 
ever, is  more  extensive,  and  reaches  from  British  Columbia  to 
northern  Idaho  and  Montana  west  of  the  Divide,  and  in  the  Cas- 
cades to  northern  California.  In  western  Oregon  and  Washington, 
along  the  river  bottoms,  the  tree  often  reaches  a  diameter  of  5 
and  a  height  of  200  feet  or  more,  with  as  much  as  75  or  100  feet 
clear  of  limbs. 


Fig.  29. — Alpine  Fir.  A,  Twig  and  cones  in  natural  posi- 
tion ;  B,  bract,  at  a,  and  lower  side  of  seed-bearing  scale  ; 
C,  upper  side  of  seed-bearing  scale  with  seeds  in  position. 


48 


THE    CONIFERS    OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 


In  its  younger  state  the  grand  fir  has  a  conical  form;  as  it  ap- 
proaches maturity  the  outlines  of  the  tree  become  more  cylindrical, 
owing  to  the  drooping  of  its  lower  branches.    A  habit  of  the  tree  fro- 


Fig.  30.— Alpine  Fir,  in  Glacier  National  Park,  at  an  altitude  of  about  6,000  feet, 
like  form  is  charact  prist  ic 


The  spire- 


quently  seen  is  the  presence  of  several  erect  stems  in  the  tops  of  older 
crowns;  these  develop  usually  after  the  destruction  of  the  original 
leader.  The  leaves  are  an  inch,  more  or  less,  in  length,  with  lighter 
color  on  the  lower  surface,  and  a  tendency  to  come  into  a  lateral  flank- 


THE   SPECIES.  49 

ing  position  on  the  twig  by  the  torsion  of  their  short  stems.  The 
twigs  also  have  a  habit  of  spreading  horizontally,  and  those  which 
originate  above  or  below  bend  into  a  horizontal  position  to  conform 
with  the  rest.  The  cones  of  the  grand  fir  are  green  at  maturity, 
about  3  or  4  inches  in  length  and  1  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  com- 
posed of  broad,  closely  overlapping  scales.  The  bark  of  this  species 
is  smooth  in  youth,  but  gradually  it  becomes  broken  by  furrows, 
which  deepen  with  age ;  in  old  trees  the  bark  is  about  2  inches  thick, 
with  uniformly  narrow  ridges  and  deep  grooves,  grayish  on  the 
surface,  but  a  deep  brick-red  within. 

The  alpine  fir  (Abies  lasiocarpa) ,  often  called  balsam  fir,  in  Mon- 
tana is  more  common.  It  is  not  the  true  balsam  fir,  however,  as  that 
species  is  a  native  of  the  northeastern  part  of  the  continent  and  dif- 
fers from  this  in  some  very  important  features.  The  range  of  the 
Alpine  fir  extends  from  Alaska  to  Alberta  in  the  north,  and  south- 
ward through  the  Cascades  to  California  and  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains to  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  In  Montana  it  is  common  on  all 
the  higher  altitudes,  not  only  of  the  main  but  also  of  the  outlying 
ranges.  In  some  places  it  occurs  as  low  as  2,000  feet,  as  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  State,  along  the  Kootenai  River,  but  for  the  most 
part  it  occurs  from  5,000  feet  up  to  timber  line,  where  it  is  mixed 
with  Engelmann  spruce  and  whitebark  pine. 

One  of  the  striking  features  of  this  tree  is  its  form,  by  which  a 
normal  specimen  can  be  distinguished  as  far  as  it  can  be  seen.  Its 
typical  shape  is  that  of  a  very  narrow  spire.  It  seldom  has  much 
clear  length,  owing  to  its  habit  of  growing  in  open  groups.  The 
bark  is  smooth,  seldom  rough,  even  in  old  specimens.  The  leaves  are 
shorter  and  darker  colored  than  those  of  the  grand  fir.  The  cones 
are  oblong,  dark  purple,  and  1J  to  3  inches  in  length.  This  tree 
may  attain,  under  the  best  conditions,  a  height  of  150  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  3  or  more  feet.  Owing  to  its  usual  inaccessibility  and 
its  inferior  form,  the  alpine  fir  is  of  no  importance  commercially. 

ARBOR  VITAE. 

The  arbor  vitse  is  commonly  called  a  cedar,  although  that 
appellation  is  applied  to  several  other  genera  as  well.  Two  species 
of  this  genus  occur  in  North  America,  one  on  the  Atlantic,  the  other 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  They  are  trees  which  endure  shade,  require  a 
good  deal  of  moisture,  and  a  moderately  cool  climate. 

In  all  of  the  preceding  genera  the  leaf  arrangement  is  alternate 
or  spiral;  in  the  arbor  vitae  and  juniper  the  arrangement  is  oppo- 
site or  cyclic.  This  applies  to  the  cone  members  as  well  as  to  the 
leaves.  The  stem  of  the  arbor  vitaa  is  a  straight  central  shaft,  ex- 
tending through  the  crown.     The  branches  droop  conspicuously,  and 


50 


THE   CONIFERS  OF   THE   NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


the  twigs  are  arranged  in  a  flat  spray  or  branching  system,  the  ulti- 
mate divisions  of  which  are  almost  contiguous  laterally.  The  leaves 
would  hardly  be  recognized  as  such  by  the  uninitiated ;  they  are  very 
small  scales,  less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  closely  applied 
to  the  surface  of  the  slender  twig  which  they  entirely  cover.  The 
leaves  stand  opposite  in  pairs  and  lengthwise  of  the  twig  are  arranged 


Fig.  31.— Alpine  Fir.    The  smooth  bark  is  characteristic,  even  to  maturity. 

in  four  ranks.  An  interesting  feature  of  the  arbor  vte  is  the  fact 
that  in  its  seedling  stage  the  first  season  it  produces  flat,  sharp- 
pointed,  outstanding  leaves,  a  fourth  of  an  inch  or  more  in  length. 
In  an  axil  of  an  upper  one  of  these  a  branch  appears  which  bears 
leaves  that  are  scalelike  and  continue  so  in  the  subsequent  growth. 


THE    SPECIES. 


51 


On  the  ends  of  the  ultimate  twigs  the  small  flowers  are  borne,  each 
kind  consisting  of  a  few  pairs  of  scales,  each  pair  at  right  angles  to 
the  one  above  or  below.  The  cones,  which  are  often  produced  in  great 
numbers,'  are  half  an  inch  or  less  in  length,  each  of  the  fertile  scales 
producing  one  or  more  seeds.  These  seeds,  unlike  those  of  the  preced- 
ing species,  are  surrounded  by  the  wing;  they  are  oval  in  form,  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  or  less  in  length.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  is  usually 
much  folded  at  the  base,  with  buttress-like  roots.  The  bark  is  1  inch, 
more  or  less,  in  thickness,  light  gray,  and  divided  by  long  furrows ; 
it  is  strongly  fibrous,  separating, 
upon  proper  manipulation,  into 
long,  ribbonlike  strips. 

The  western  arbor  vital  {Thuya 
plicata)  is  found  from  southern 
Alaska  to  northern  California 
along  the  coast,  in  the  Cascades 
through  Washington  and  Oregon, 
and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
Montana  and  Idaho.  It  reaches 
its  best  development  in  the  deep, 
moist  soils  of  the  lowlands  along 
the  coast  of  Washington  and  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  where  large  speci- 
mens are  found  10  to  15  feet  in  di- 
ameter, some  of  them  with  a  height 
of  200  feet  or  more.  The  lumber  of 
this  tree  is  of  high  value,  being- 
light,  soft,  easily  worked,  and  very 

durable.  Especially  is  the  latter  true  of  older  trees,  the  growth 
of  which  has  been  very  slow  as  they  approached  maturity,  resulting 
in  a  fine  and  uniform  grain.  One  may  often  find  in  the  forests  of  the 
coast  region  prostrate  trunks  in  sound  condition  which  have  lain  so 
long  that  other  forest  trees  to  a  diameter  of  several  feet  have  grown 
on  top  of  them,  with  huge  roots  reaching  down  on  either  side.  This 
timber  is  used  almost  exclusively,  in  the  Xorthwest,  for  telegraph 
poles  and  shingles;  the  lumber  is  useful  also  for  many  other  pur- 
poses. The  tree  is  capable  of  enduring  deep  shade,  and  grows  often 
in  mixtures  with  other  species.  In  Montana  the  arbor  vitse  is  found 
only  west  of  the  Divide,  where  it  attains  a  diameter  of  several  feet 
in  the  river  bottoms  and  deep  canyons  under  conditions  of  perennial 
moisture. 

This  tree  is  recognized  by  its  flat  sprays  of  small  twigs  that  form 
a  compact  system.  The  twigs  are  distinctly  flat,  and  the  leaves  in 
pairs,  forming  four  ranks  of  closely  overlapping  scales.  The  cones 
are  three-eighths  or  half  an  inch  long,  borne  on  the  ends  of  the 


Fig.  32.  —  Arbor  Vita?.     A,  Twig  and  cone 
scale-like  leaves  ;  B,  scale  ;  C,  seed. 


52  HIE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 

twigs,  and  composed  of  three  to  five  pairs  of  scales.  In  form  the  cone 
is  a  narrow  oval.  The  cone  is  matured  in  one  season,  and  the  seed  is 
easily  scattered  to  a  great  distance. 


Fig.  33. — Arbor  Vitae.     Scene  in  St.  Joe  Mountains  in  Idaho. 


THE    SPECIES. 
JUNIPERS. 


53 


The  junipers  are  not  readily  recognized  as  conifers  by  those  not 
familiar  with  the  more  minute  structure  of  the  flower  and  fruit.  The 
fruit  has  the  appearance  of  a  berry  and  is  commonly  so  called.  In 
reality,  however,  the  fruit  is  a  cone  of  a  very  few  scales  that  have 
become  fleshy  and  united,  their  identity  being  distinguishable  only 
by  small  points  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit.  These  fruits  are  usually 
globular  or  oval  and  contain  few  seeds.    The  junipers  are  sometimes 


Fn;.  34. — Junipers.  Left,  Rocky  Mountain  juniper  with  Immature  cones  at  A  and  mature 
ones  at  B.     Leaves  scalelike.     Right,  dwarf  juniper,  twig,  and  fruit;  D,  seed;  C,  fruit 

(cone)    in  section,  showing  two  s ]s. 

dioecious,  i.  e.,  the  pollen  and  the  seed  flowers  are  borne  on  separate 
trees.  In  either  case  the  flowers  are  very  small  and  inconspicuous. 
Some  of  the  junipers  mature  their  fruit  in  one  season,  others  require 
two.  The  wood  is  fine  grained,  aromatic,  and  durable.  In  its  smaller 
forms  it  is  used  for  posts,  but  it  is  useful  otherwise  in  many  ways.  A 
species  of  wide  distribution  through  the  Atlantic  region  is  much 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  pencils. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  jumper  (Jwrdpe?  us  scopvUorum)  is  the 
most  common  of  the  Montana  species  and  occurs  in  many  parts  of  the 
State  east  and  west  of  the  Divide.  It  is  found  scattered  with  yellow 
pine  along  the  rim-rock  of  the  Yellowstone  and  its  tributaries,  on 
slopes  and  crests  high  up  toward  the  summit  of  the  main  range 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  west  of  the  Divide  appears  commonly 
in  all  forested  portions  of  the  country,  and  attains  a  diameter  of 
nearly  2  feet  and  a  height  of  30  feet  or  more  in  the  better-watered 
parts  of  the  Flathead  Valley.  Beyond  this  State  its  range  extends 
northward  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  into  Alberta  and  southward  into 


54 


THE   CONIFERS   OF    THE    NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


Arizona;  it  is  found  in  the  Black  Hills,  and  westward  reaches  the 
coast  of  Washington  and  British  Columbia  and  to  the  eastern  part  of 


^^■Jpr  *  i»jflHfc^[^H^Kj| 

*  '^^'le* 

bcmKT^*  s 

Kv^m"    ^Ly 

.4 

*  V    r         **2 

JH^dS 

/ 

. 

/ 

.    1 

Fig.  35.— Rocky  Mountain  Juniper,  on  Flathead  Lake. 

Oregon  and  Nevada.  This  tree  is  able  to  grow  in  dry  uplands,  but 
like  many  other  plants  does  much  better  where  soil  moisture  is 
abundant. 


THE    SPECIES.  55 

Where  it  grows  unhindered  the  form  of  the  tree  is  that  of  a  blunt 
cone ;  under  other  conditions  the  top  is  often  open  and  irregular.  The 
younger  trees  show  a  straight  central  shaft  which  becomes  less  con- 
spicuous later  by  the  development  of  several  strong  branches  and  the 
ultimate  stunting  of  the  leader  in  old  crowns.  The  bark  is  reddish 
brown,  thin,  and  separates  in  strips  of  considerable  length.  The  wood 
is  light  in  weight,  compact,  red  or  light  brown,  and  very  durable. 
Owing  to  its  small  size  and  poor  form,  it  is  useful  only  for  minor 
purposes.  The  ultimate  branches  of  this  tree  are  great  numbers  of 
short  cylindrical  twigs,  along  which  minute,  scalelike  leaves  in  close 
order  are  arranged  in  alternating  pairs.  The  "  berries  "  are  terminal 
on  the  twigs,  are  oval  in  form  and  blue  in  color,  usually  contain- 
ing two  seeds.  In  this,  as  in  other  junipers,  the  fruits  are  sought  by 
birds  and  animals,  that  scatter  the  seeds  undigested.  The  junipers 
have  no  means  of  dissemination  by  the  wind,  but  some  of  the  species 
are  very  widely  distributed. 

The  shrubby  red  cedar  (Juniperus  sabina)  occurs  in  the  northern 
part  of  Montana.  It  is  a  prostrate  shrub,  forming  in  mats,  and  is 
seldom  more  than  2  feet  high,  but  usually  about  1.  The  appearance 
of  its  twigs  is  much  like  that  of  the  preceding  species,  and  so  is  the 
fruit;  in  both  structures,  however,  they  differ  in  points  which  are 
more  readily  appreciated  by  the  technical  botanist.  This  species  has 
a  very  extensive  distribution,  being  found  not  only  in  the  more 
northerly  latitudes  of  North  America,  but  in  those  of  Europe  and 
Asia  as  well. 

The  western  juniper  (Juniperus  occidentalis)  occurs  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  region  included  within  the  scope  of  this  paper,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Yellowstone  Park.  Mr.  Sudworth1  describes  this 
tree  as  being  usually  from  15  to  20  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  of 
16  inches,  more  or  less.  Trunks  are  straight,  with  prominent  ridges 
and  low  branches.  The  bark  is  a  clear,  light  cinnamon  brown,  dis- 
tinctly cut  by  wide,  shallow  furrows.  Leaves  pale,  ashy-green,  and 
prominently  marked  on  the  back  by  a  glandular  pit,  whitish  with 
resin.  The  fruit  is  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  mature 
about  September  of  the  second  year,  bluish  black,  and  covered  with 
a  whitish  bloom,  and  slightly  marked  at  the  top  by  projecting  points, 
the  tips  of  the  flower  scales.  The  flesh  is  scanty  and  dry  and  con- 
tains from  two  to  three  seeds,  which  are  pitted  and  grooved. 

This  tree  has  closely  fitting  and  scale-like  leaves,  and  in  its  general 
form  resembles  somewhat  the"  Rocky  Mountain  juniper. 

The  dwarf  juniper  (Juniperus  communis)  is  easily  distinguished 
from  the  other  junipers  by  its  distinct,  outstanding  leaves,  in  circles 
of  three.    The  fruit  matures  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  is  dark 

1  Sudworth,  George  B.  Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope.  Superintendent  of  Docu- 
ments, Government  Printing  Office,   Washington,   I).   C,   1908. 


56 


THE   CONIFERS  OF   THE   NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 


blue,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  with  three  points  at  the  apex. 
The  leaves  are  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  in  length,  flat,  sharp- 


pointed,  and  somewhat  paler  beneath.  In  Montana  the  habit  of  this 
species  is  that  of  a  prostrate  shrub.  It  often  forms  dense  mats  over 
several  square  rods,  but  usually  in  clumps  several  feet  across.     It 


THE   SPECIES. 


57 


seldom  is  higher  than  2  or  3  feet.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  dwarf  juniper  attains  tree  form,  20  feet  or  more  in  height  and  a 
diameter  of  several  inches. 

In  Montana  this  species  occurs  at  altitudes  from  3,000  to  6,000 
feet  or  more,  and  is  widely  distributed  through  the  mountainous 
regions  of  the  State.  It  is  one  of-  the  most  widely  distributed  plants 
of  the  northern  hemisphere.  It  is  found  across  the  continent  from 
Greenland  to  Alaska,  and  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Nebraska,  and 
in  the  mountains  to  Texas  and  Arizona.  It  occurs  also  in  Europe  and 
Asia. 

THE  YEW. 

The  yew  (Taxus  hrevifolia)  is  not  a  conifer  nor  a  member  of  the 
pine  family,  but,  as  it  is  the  most  nearly  allied  to  these  in  the  Mon- 


Fig.  37.— Western  Yew.    Branches  showing  fruits  in  various  stages  of  development.    July. 

tana  flora,  it  will  be  mentioned  here.  It  possesses  certain  features 
which  suggest  the  conifers,  viz,  the  form  of  its  leaves  and  its  ever- 
green habit.  The  leaves  are  alternately  arranged,  flat,  sharp-pointed, 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  horizontally  disposed. 
The  branches  also  have  a  strong  tendency  to  form  in  flat  sprays. 
The  fruit  is  distinctive.  It  consists  of  a  single  exposed  seed,  which 
is  partly  enveloped  by  a  fleshy  collar  (aril)  which  turns  red  when 
mature.  These  fruits  in  all  stages  of  development  may  be  found  on 
the  same  branch.  When  ripe  the  aril  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  round,  and  slightly  flattened  apically. 


58  THE   CONIFERS  OF    THE    NORTHERN    ROCKIES. 

The  yew  in  Montana,  except  in' the  most  favorable  situations,  is  a 
mere  shrub,  growing  in  thick  forests  in  the  shade  of  other  trees.  In 
the  region  about  Flathead  Lake  it  attains  a  height  of  20  feet  and  a 
diameter  near  the  ground  of  1  foot  or  more,  although  the  stem 
divides  low  into  several  stout  branches.  Farther  west,  in  the  moister 
places  on  the  coast,  it  grows  much  larger  and  with  better  form.  The 
bark  of  the  yew  is  thin,  red,  and  flakes  off  in  large  scales.  The  wood 
is  moderately  hard,  of  very  fine  grain,  dark  in  color,  and  of  groat 
resiliency.  It  is  much  used  for  the  manufacture  of  bows  for  archery. 
A  relative  X)f  this  species,  the  English  yew,  was  long  ago  famous  in 
history  for  the  bows  which  were  fashioned  from  its  wood. 

The  western  yew  is  found  in  Montana  west  of  the  continental 
divide  and  north  from  the  head  of  the  Bitter  Root  Valley  to  the 
west.  Its  range  at  large  extends  from  southern  Alaska  into  Cali- 
fornia and  the  mountains  of  eastern  Washington  and  Oregon. 


KEY  TO  THE  GENERA   OF  MONTANA  CONIFERS. 

1.  Leaves  in  clusters  of  two,  three,  or  five Pines. 

2.  Leaves  in  clusters  of  ten  or  more Larches. 

3.  Leaves  borne  singly: 

Leaves  alternate — 

Leaves  sharp-pointed,   rigid Spruce. 

Leaves  softer,  blunt  or  rounded  on  the  end — 

Cones  erect,  solid , Firs. 

Cones  pendent — 

Bracts  conspicuous,  three-pointed Douglas  spruce. 

Bracts  entirely  concealed Hemlocks. 

Leaves  mostly  scale-like,  opposite  or  in  circles — 

Sprays  flat,  cones  dry Arbor  vita?. 

Sprays  bushy,  cone  berry-like Junipers. 


III.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  CONIFERS. 


Observe  the  tree  as  it  stands;  it  is  differentiated  into  stem,  crown, 
and  roots.  Is  the  stem  discernible  as  a  continuous  straight  shaft 
through  to  the  top  of  the  crown  ?  In  most  conifers  of  normal  growth 
it  does  so  appear,  though  in  stunted  specimens,  and  in  some  old  ones, 
the  main  stem  dissolves  into  a  few  large  branches.  At  a  convenient 
distance  compare-  several  trees  of  the  same  species  as  to  the  profile 
of  the  crown,  as  to  the  habit  of  branching,  as  to  the  attitude  of  the 
main  branches  and  also  the  lesser  ones.  Can  you  recognize  and  de- 
fine any  peculiarities  of  outline  which  mark  the  particular  species? 
Observe  the  tree  nearer  at  hand  and  notice  whether  the  branches 
seem  to  be  grouped  in  circles  at  intervals.  This  is  a  common  feature 
of  the  branching  of  certain  species,  and  if  clearly  defined  the  circles 
of  branches  may  be  taken  to  indicate  where  one  season's  growth  has 
ended  and  another  begun.  The  distance  between  successive  whorls 
may  usually  be  considered  one  year's  growth.  Such  intervals  do 
not  lengthen  after  the  first  season.  Make  special  observations  of 
the  bark — its  color  and  surface,  whether  rough  or  smooth ;  the  depth 
and  direction  of  the  channels,  and  the  form  and  size  of  the  areas  they 
inclose;  the  manner  of  scaling  off,  and  its  thickness.  Notice  the 
bark  of  trees  of  different  ages  in  the  same  species.  Follow  the 
changes  which  take  place  as  to  color,  surface,  etc.  Is  the  same  series 
of  changes  noticeable  from  the  younger  to  the  older  parts  of  the 
main  stem  of  the  same  tree  ? 

The  branches. — Do  the  branches  show  the  same  characteristics  as 
the  main  stem?  Are  the  features  of  the  bark  the  same?  Do  other 
branches  tend  to  arise  from  the  main  one  in  circles?  Look  for  ring- 
like markings  on  the  branch.  They  may  be  found  in  most  cases  at 
intervals  of  an  inch  to  a  foot  or  more,  and  indicate  the  limits  of  the 
season's  growth,  like  the  whorls  of  branches  on  the  main  stem.  Do 
the  whorls  of  twigs  on  a  branch  stand  in  relation  to  such  markings? 
Are  there  buds  on  the  tips  or  the  sides  of  the  branches  ?  Remove  the 
scales  from  one  of  them.  Do  you  find  a  small  green  elevation  just 
above  and  at  the  base  of  each  scale?  They  are  present  in  winter 
buds  and  are  the  beginnings  of  leaves  for  the  next  season.  What  is 
the  arrangement  of  the  bud  scales?  Refer  to  the  branch  just  below 
the  bud  and  see  what  has  become  of  the  bud  scales.  Determine  by  a 
series  of  observations  during  the  summer  when  the  buds  are  formed 
and  the  amount  of  development  which  takes  place  in  one  season  pre- 

59 


60  THE   CONIFERS  OF    THE   NORTHERN   ROCKIES. 

paratory  for  the  next.  Watch  the  unfolding  of  buds  in  the  spring 
and  the  appearance  of  the  various  parts.  How  long  does  it  require 
for  the  main  growth  in  length  to  be  accomplished  ? 

The  leaves. — Observe  closely  a  single  leaf.  Is  it  uniform  in  color, 
rigid  or  flexible,  sharp  or  rounded  at  the  point?  Cut  across  a  leaf 
and  notice  the  outline  of  its  section.  Are  the  leaves  borne  singly 
or  in  clusters?  The  pines  have  leaves  in  twos,  threes,  or  fives,  and 
the  larches  in  bunches  of  from  10  to  40.  In  the  pine  observe  the  short 
spurs  upon  which  the  leaves  are  borne;  these  are  short  branches. 
Compare  with  those  found  in  the  larch.  Determine  at  what  age 
the  leaves  fall.  To  do  this,  count  the  number  of  years  back  from 
the  end  of  the  branch  to  where  the  leaves  are  about  all  shed  from  the 
branch.  Try  this  method  on  other  branches  and  compare.  This  mat- 
ter stands  in  relation  to  the  density  of  the  branching,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  in  some  trees  the  leaves  are  shed  earlier  than  in  others. 
The  leaves  succumb  and  drop  off  when  they  are  shaded.  Can  you  by 
examining  the  leaves  learn  something  as  to  the  needs  of  the  tree  with 
reference  to  light?  Another  method  of  determining  the  age  at  which 
leaves  are  shed  is  to  cut  through  the  branch  at  the  place  where  the 
leaves  have  fallen  and  count  the  rings  in  the  wood,  one  for  each 
year's  growth.  If  the  branch  has  been  of  slow  growth,  this  may  re- 
quire the  aid  of  a  lens.  Observe  whether  the  position  and  attitude 
of  the  leaves  are  the  same  in  all  species.  In  what  trees  do  the  leaves 
occur  in  alternate  or  spiral  arrangement?  Are  there  any  in  which 
they  are  in  circles,  or  opposite  ? 

The  -flowers. — The  flowers  of  the  conifers  appear  early  in  the  sea- 
son, before  the  new  leaves  have  fairly  expanded  on  the  same  branch. 
The  flowers  of  these  trees  are  always  of  two  kinds.  Look  for  the 
ovulate  or  seed-bearing  flowers  on  or  near  the  ends  of  the  branchlets. 
These  are  erect  and  usually  red  and  consist  ordinarily  of  a  compact 
series  of  outstanding  scales  on  a  short  central  axis.  The  pollen 
flowers,  in  much  greater  numbers,  are  usually  a  little  farther  back 
from  the  ends  of  the  branches  and  are  either  pendent  or  projecting  in 
all  directions,  except  in  the  case  of  arbor  vita3  and  most  of  the 
junipers,  in  which  they  are  terminal  on  short  branches.  What  do 
you  observe  as  to  the  relative  numbers  of  the  flowers  of  both  kinds? 
Compare,  if  possible,  various  members  of  the  pine  family  as  to  the 
position  of  the  flowers  on  the  branch.  Examine  the  parts  of  the 
flowers.  Look  for  the  young  seeds  at  the  base  of  the  scale  on  the 
upper  side.  Find  the  source  of  the  pollen.  In  many  cases  the  flowers 
of  pines  and  other  members  of  this  group  are  on  high  branches  and 
out  of  reach  from  the  ground,  but  old  trees  may  sometimes  be  found 
with  spreading  and  low-hanging  branches  on  which  cones  have  been 
produced  in  previous  years ;  they  will  usually  be  found  in  flower  at 
the  right  seaspn. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR   THE   STUDY   OF    THE   CONIFERS.  61 

The  fruit. — Observe  the  position  of  the  cones  or  fruit.  Does  the 
cone  stand  in  the  same  position  as  the  flower?  How  much  growth 
has  intervened?  Are  there  younger  and  smaller  cones  on  the  tree 
at  the  same  time?  What  do  you  infer  as  to  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired for  the  maturing  of  the  fruit?  Examine  cones  of  different 
species  and  note  differences  of  size,  form,  color,  hardness,  surface 
markings,  and  other  features.  What  trees  mature  their  cones  in  one 
year?  Which  in  two?  Take  a  closed  ripe  cone  from  the  tree  and 
keep  it  in  a  dry  place.  Observe  the  manner  in  which  it  opens.  Ex- 
amine the  structure  of  the  cone.  Is  there  more  than  one  series  of 
organs?  Notice  in  most  cases  the  bract  just  below  the  seed-bearing 
scale.  Compare  different  species  as  to  the  relative  development  of 
scale  and  bract. 

The  seed. — What  is  the  position  of  the  seed  in  the  cone?  How 
many  seeds  are  borne  on  each  scale?  In  what  position  on  the  scale? 
What  facilities  for  distribution  do  the  seeds  possess?  How  effective 
as  a  means  of  distribution  are  the  wings  found  on  some  seeds  ?  Let 
fall  some  seeds  having  wings  from  a  height  of  several  feet.  Is  the 
rate  of  its  fall  controlled  by  the  wing?  Of  what  use  is  such  retarda- 
tion of  fall  among  seeds  disseminated  by  the  wind?  Estimate  the 
average  number  of  seeds  to  the  cone.  Kemove  the  coat  of  a  seed  and 
observe  the  fleshy  contents.  In  the  center  of  the  fleshy  mass  lies  the 
embryo,  a  cylindrical  or  club-shaped  body  with  a  root  rudiment,  or 
radicle,  at  the  smaller  end,  and  at  the  larger  a  circle  of  small  mem- 
bers, the  seed  leaves  or  cotyledons;  the  young  stem  is  the  middle 
portion.  The  fleshy  material  surrounding  the  embryo  is  called  the 
endosperm,  and  serves  as  food  for  the  seedling  until  it  becomes 
established  in  the  soil.  Soak  a  few  pine  seeds  in  water  for  a  day, 
and  then  sow  in  light  soil  in  boxes  or  out  of  doors,  keep  slightly 
moist,  and  watch  for  the  appearance  of  the  young  plants.  Observe 
the  behavior  of  the  young  plants  with  reference  to  the  seed  coat  and 
endosperm.  What  purpose  do  the  cotyledons  serve  first?  L<ater? 
Compare  seeds  of  different  members  of  the  pine  family  as  to  their 
form  and  their  behavior  during  germination. 


REFERENCES. 
The  following  books  will  be  found  helpful  for  a  further  study  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  trees: 

Britton,  N.  L.    North  American  Trees. 
Howell,  Thomas.     Flora  of  Northwest  America. 
Nelson,  Aven.    New  Manual  of  Rocky  Mountain  Botany. 
Rydberg,  P.  A.     Botany  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Sargent,  C.  S.     Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America. 
Sudworth,  George  B,    Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION  FOR  1917. 

[Continued  from  page  2  of  cover.] 

No.  34.  Institutions   in   the   United   States  giving  instruction   in   agriculture. 

A.  C.  Monahan  and  C.  H.  Dye. 
No.  35.  The    township    and    community    high-school    movement    in    Illinois. 

H.  A.  Hollister. 
No.  36.  Demand  for  vocational  education  in  the  countries  at  war.     Au.ua  T. 

Smith. 
No.  37.  The  conference  on  training  for  foreign  service.    Glen  L.  Swiggett. 
No.  38.  Vocational  teachers  for  secondary  schools.    C.  D.  Jarvis 
No.  39.  Teaching  English  to  aliens.     Winthrop  Talbot, 

No.  40.  Monthly  record  of  current  educatioual  publications,  September,   1917. 
No.  41.  Library  books  for  high  schools.     Martha  Wilson. 
No.  42.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  October,  1917. 
No.  43.  Educational  directory,  1917-18. 
No.  44.  Educational  conditions  in  Arizona. 
No.  45.  Summer  sessions  in  city  schools.    W.  S.  Deffenbaugh. 
No.  46.  The  public  school  system  of  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
No.  47.  The  preparation  and  preservation  of  vegetables.    Henrietta  W,  Calvin 

and  Carrie  A.  Lyford. 
No.  48.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  November,  1917. 
No.  49.  Music  in  secondary  schools.    A  report  of  the  Commission  on  Secondary 

Education.    Will  Earhart  and  Osbourne  McConathy. 
No.  50.  Physical  education  in  secondary  schools.    A  report  of  the  Commission 

on  Secondary  Education. 
No.  51.  Moral  values  in  secondary  education.    A  report  of  the  Commission  on 

Secondary  Education.    Henry  Neumann. 
No.  52.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  December,  1917, 
No.  53.  The  conifers  of  the  northern  Rockies.    J.  E.  Kirkwood. 
No.  54.  Training  in  courtesy.     Margaret  S.  McNaught. 


in 


